Immunology

HIV-Associated Immune Amnesia Could Explain Why HIV-Positive People Have Shorter Lives – PrecisionVaccinations

A new study led by the Oregon Health & Science University School of Medicine and Oregon National Primate Research Center found Human Immunodeficiency (HIV) patients lose immunity to smallpox, even though they were vaccinated against the disease as children.

Called HIV-associated immune amnesia, this finding published on January 2, 2020, could explain why people living with HIV still tend to have shorter lives on average than their HIV-negative counterparts, despite being on antiretroviral therapy.

This new study was published in the Journal of Infectious Diseases and follows other research recently published in the journals Science and Science Immunology that found the immune systems of children who contracted measles similarly "forgot" their immunity against other illnesses, such as influenza.

The previous study was published on October 31, 2019, found measles infections in children can eliminate the immune systems memory to fight off other illnesses.

That was the first study to show definitive evidence that a measles virus infection can destroy important immune cells that remember previous encounters with specific bacteria.

Led by Mark K. Slifka, Ph.D., a professor of molecular microbiology and immunology at the Oregon Health & Science University School of Medicine and Oregon National Primate Research Center, this new study compared T-cell and antibody responses of a total of 100 HIV-positive and HIV-negative women who were vaccinated against smallpox in their youth.

The research team chose smallpox because its last known U.S. case was in 1949, meaning study subjects haven't recently been exposed to its virus, which would have triggered new T-cell and antibody responses.

They found the immune systems of HIV-positive women who were on antiretroviral therapy had a limited response when their blood was exposed to the vaccina virus, which is used in the smallpox vaccine.

Normally, those vaccinated against smallpox have CD4 T cells that remember the virus and respond in large numbers when they're exposed again. Previous research has shown smallpox virus-specific CD4 T cells are maintained for up to 75 years after vaccination.

This finding happened despite the fact that antiretroviral therapy works by boosting CD4 T cell counts in HIV-positive patients. This indicates that while antiretroviral therapy may boost total T cell counts overall, it can't recover virus-specific T cells generated from prior childhood vaccinations.

Dr. Slifka and his colleagues plan to evaluate whether the same phenomenon occurs in HIV-infected men and if people living with HIV also lose immune memory to other diseases.

Researchers who contributed to this study are affiliated with OHSU, SUNY Downstate, Georgetown University, Cornell University, University of Southern California and John Hopkins University.

This research was supported by the National Institutes of Health Public Health Service (grant U19 AI109948) and the Oregon National Primate Research Center (grant 8P51 OD011092).

HIV vaccine news published by Precision Vaccinations.

See more here:
HIV-Associated Immune Amnesia Could Explain Why HIV-Positive People Have Shorter Lives - PrecisionVaccinations

Genetics

These 6 Simple Exercises Can Cut Body Weight, Even if You’re Predisposed to Obesity – ScienceAlert

We know that a range of factors influence weight, including those related to lifestyle and genetics, but researchers have now identified six specific exercises that seem to offer the best chance of keeping your weight down even if your genes don't want you to.

Based on an analysis of 18,424 Han Chinese adults in Taiwan, aged between 30 and 70 years old, the best ways of reducing body mass index (BMI) in individuals predisposed to obesity are: regular jogging, mountain climbing, walking, power walking, dancing (to an "international standard"), and lengthy yoga practices.

But interestingly, many popular exercise types weren't shown to do much good for those who's genetic risk score makes them more likely to be obese.

Specifically, exercises including cycling, stretching, swimming and legendary console game Dance Dance Revolution don't appear to be able to counteract genetic bias (though are beneficial in many other ways).

"Our findings show that the genetic effects on obesity measures can be decreased to various extents by performing different kinds of exercise," write the researchers in their paper published in PLOS Geneticsin August 2019.

"The benefits of regular physical exercise are more impactful in subjects who are more predisposed to obesity."

Besides BMI, the team also looked at four other obesity measures for a more complete picture: body fat percentage (BFP), waist circumference (WC), hip circumference (HC), and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR).

Regular jogging 30 minutes, three times a week turned out to be the most effective way of counteracting obesity genes across all of them.

The researchers also suggest, based on the information dug up in the Taiwan BioBank database, that the less effective forms of exercise typically don't use up as much energy, which is why they don't work quite so well.

The researchers specifically noted that activities in cold water, such as swimming, could make people hungrier and cause them to eat more.

The study was able to succeed in one of its main aims, which was to show that having a genetic disposition towards obesity doesn't mean that obesity is inevitable the right type of exercise, carried out regularly, can fight back against that built-in genetic coding.

"Obesity is caused by genetics, lifestyle factors, and the interplay between them," epidemiologist Wan-Yu Lin, from the National Taiwan University, told Newsweek. "While hereditary materials are inborn, lifestyle factors can be determined by oneself."

It's worth noting that not every type of exercise was popular enough within the sample population to be included: activities like weight training, table tennis, badminton or basketball may or may not be helpful, too. There wasn't enough data to assess.

But with obesity numbers rising sharply across the world and 13 percent of the global population now thought to quality as being obese it's clear that measures need to be taken to reverse the trend.

Being obese affects our physiological health in the way it increases the risk of cardiovascular disease, some cancers, and other issues; and there's evidencethat being seriously overweight can have a negative effect on our brains too.

Studies like this latest one can point towards ways of sticking at a healthy weight, even when the genetic cards are stacked against it. In some cases all it takes is a few minutes of exertion per day.

"Previous studies have found that performing regular physical exercise could blunt the genetic effects on BMI," conclude the researchers.

"However, few studies have investigated BFP or measures of central obesity. These obesity measures are even more relevant to health than BMI."

The research has been published in PLOS Genetics.

A version of this article was first published in August 2019.

Originally posted here:
These 6 Simple Exercises Can Cut Body Weight, Even if You're Predisposed to Obesity - ScienceAlert

Genetics

How genetics and social games drive evolution of mating systems in mammals – Jill Lopez

Traditional explanations for why some animals are monogamous and others are promiscuous or polygamous have focused on how the distribution and defensibility of resources (such as food, nest sites, or mates) determine whether, for example, one male can attract and defend multiple females.

A new model for the evolution of mating systems focuses instead on social interactions driven by genetically determined behaviors, and how competition among different behavioral strategies plays out, regardless of external factors such as defensible resources. In this model, social interactions can drive evolutionary transitions from one mating system to another, and can even drive a population to split into two separate species with different mating systems.

The model is based on three fundamental behavioral strategies: aggression, cooperation, and deception. The conflict between competitive and cooperative social behaviors drives the evolution of the mating systems. In a paper published December 18 inAmerican Naturalist(online ahead of print publication in the February issue), researchers compared the predictions generated by this model with published data on the mating behavior of 288 species of rodents.

"By and large, everything in our predictions seems to be borne out in rodents," said first author Barry Sinervo, professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at the University of California, Santa Cruz. "Our model is a universal equation of sorts for mating systems."

The evolutionary story that emerges from the study goes something like this: An ancestral population of rodents is promiscuous in its mating behavior. Genetic variation within the population results in individuals with distinctive behaviors. Some males are highly aggressive, defend large territories, and mate with as many females as they can. Others are not territorial, but sneak onto the territories of other males for surreptitious mating opportunities. And some are monogamous and defend small territories, cooperating with neighboring males at territorial boundaries.

These three types can coexist, but any imbalance in the relative advantages of different strategies can lead to the elimination of some behaviors and an evolutionary transition to a species that is, for example, entirely monogamous or entirely polygamous. The cooperative behavior of monogamous males, for example, can include paternal care for the young and the ability recognize and affiliate with other cooperative males, making them stronger in the competition with other strategies.

"They are able to find each other and form colonies, and the bigger the colonies get the stronger they are against the barbarians at the gate. Then they split off from the rest of the population as a separate monogamous species," Sinervo said.

This may sound like little more than storytelling, but in fact it emerges from a set of mathematical equations based on game theory and population genetics, and it is supported by extensive research in animal behavior and genetics.

The new paper builds on Sinervo's decades-long research on mating behaviors in California's side-blotched lizards. He showed that three throat colors correspond with different behaviors in the male lizards: blue-throated monogamous males form partnerships and cooperate to protect their territories and their mates; orange-throated males are highly aggressive and usurp territories and mates from other lizards; and yellow-throated males sneak into the territories of other males to mate.

The competition between these strategies takes the form of a rock-paper-scissors game in which orange aggressors defeat blue cooperators, which defeat yellow sneakers, which defeat orange aggressors. Thus, no single type can dominate the population, and the abundance of each rises and falls in cycles. In 2007, Sinervo and his collaborators discovered the same dynamic in the distantly related European common lizard.

"That was when I started thinking that the same thing could be happening in mammals," Sinervo said.

In the new paper, Sinervo and two of his longtime collaborators--Alexis Chaine at the National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS) in Moulis, France, and Donald Miles at CNRS and Ohio University--generalized the rock-paper-scissors system and extended it to include additional behaviors such as paternal care for offspring (linked to monogamy). They focused on male strategies to simplify the analysis. Sinervo has documented corresponding female strategies in side-blotched lizards and is currently working to incorporate female strategies into the general model.

The three male behavioral strategies represented in the model are: - Polygyny, characterized by aggression to maintain large territories overlapping with several females, but without paternal care for the offspring, as seen in polygamous mating systems where one male mates with multiple females; - Monogamy, involving lower aggression and smaller territories, with cooperation at territorial boundaries and investment in paternal care; and - Sneak, a non-territorial strategy with no paternal care, resulting in sneaking behavior in otherwise territorial systems.

Using a computer to run a mathematical model of these strategies, the researchers simulated the evolution of mating systems over 1,000 generations, varying the strength of different parameters in each simulation. At the start of the simulations, the genes that determine the different strategies were assumed to be equally abundant in the population.

The results of the simulations revealed four evolutionarily stable outcomes determined by the interactions and payoffs (in terms of reproductive success) of the different behavioral strategies. Which stable outcome emerges depends on how much of an advantage each behavior provides.

One of the key factors influencing the effectiveness of a given strategy is a male's ability to recognize which behavioral group other males belong to and choose a neighborhood to settle in where his own strategy will have a competitive advantage. Cooperative, monogamous males need to recognize and affiliate with other cooperative males, whereas aggressive, polygynous males want to avoid other aggressive males and find cooperative males whose territories they can take over.

"It all depends on how good you are at finding the right neighborhood, or how good you are at cooperation and paternal care. By varying these parameters in the model, we were able to find the four different evolutionarily stable states," Sinervo said.

One stable outcome is the rock-paper-scissors dynamic documented in lizards, with the coexistence of all three male strategies. Another stable outcome is the coexistence of polygyny and sneak.

There are two stable outcomes in which only one strategy survives, either polygyny or monogamy. A mix of polygyny and monogamy is rare and unstable, eventually leading to a pure system of one or the other.

Turning to the empirical data, the researchers found evidence in studies of rodent behavior and territoriality of the mating systems and behavioral strategies described in the model. There is even a type of mole rat found in southern Africa that exhibits the rock-paper-scissors combo of all three male strategies that Sinervo discovered in lizards. He noted that, whereas mutual recognition of male strategies is based on throat colors in the lizards, in mammals it is more likely to be mediated by smells. "It's there, but we don't see it. We only saw it in lizards because of their bright colors," he said.

The researchers analyzed the phylogenetic tree of rodents (representing the evolutionary relationships among rodent species) and found the same patterns they had seen in the simulations. Species at the base of the phylogenetic tree, closer to the common ancestor of all rodents, tend to be promiscuous, with multiple mating strategies. Polygyny and monogamy very rarely occur together, but they frequently appear in sister species, suggesting they diverged from an ancestral population of mixed strategies.

The model showed that evolutionary transitions in mating systems are largely driven by increases in the benefits of monogamous behaviors. In rodents, monogamy is the most common evolutionary transition from a promiscuous ancestor, and more rodents are monogamous than polygynous. In the simulations, pure polygyny is a relatively uncommon outcome. "Polygyny is readily invaded by the sneak strategy," Sinervo explained.

Paternal care for the offspring is found in all monogamous species, supporting a key assumption linking paternal care to the evolution of monogamy.

"Promiscuity is very common, and can involve two or three different strategies. But the neat thing is that cooperation and monogamy are far more common than anyone realized," Sinervo said. "The frequency of monogamy in rodents is about 26 percent, much higher than for mammals in general and similar to primates."

The model assumes that these behavioral strategies are genetically based. Evidence in support of this includes research on the role of the hormone vasopressin (and the related hormone oxytocin) in complex social behaviors in numerous species, including rodents and humans. In the monogamous prairie voles, for example, vasopressin has been linked to pair bonding, mate guarding, and paternal care. In some rodent lineages, evolutionary transitions between monogamy and polygyny have been linked to a mutation in a vasopressin receptor gene.

The effects of the genes underlying monogamous behaviors may even drive the evolution of more advanced forms of sociality. Highly social species of rodents--such as mole rats, some of which live in colonies in which only one pair reproduces--originate from monogamous lineages.

Sinervo and his coauthors are not claiming that resources and other external ecological factors have no role in the evolution of mating systems. But the genetic model gives predictions that are consistent with the rodent data and can explain cases where a species' mating system does not match its resource ecology.

The authors also acknowledged that animal behavior can be very flexible and is not entirely determined by genetics. This is especially true in humans, whose behavior is so strongly influenced by cultural and environmental factors. In terms of mating systems, our species can be described as promiscuous, but with very high rates of monogamy. Sinervo said he sees a connection between monogamy and the deeply cooperative social behaviors that are at the core of the human condition.

"We can see analogues for human behavior in other animals, but there's really nothing else like humans," Sinervo said. "There are 'kneejerk' behavioral impulses in us that are not far from rodents, but our cultural and social complexity makes us very different from most mammals."

See the article here:
How genetics and social games drive evolution of mating systems in mammals - Jill Lopez

Genetics

New Publication Demonstrates GeneSight Improved All Clinical Outcomes Using HAM-D6 Analysis in Large Prospective GUIDED Study – Associated Press

SALT LAKE CITY, Jan. 06, 2020 (GLOBE NEWSWIRE) -- Myriad Genetics, Inc. (NASDAQ: MYGN, Myriad or the Company), a global leader in molecular diagnostics and precision medicine, announced that a new analysis of the GUIDED1 clinical trial using the 6-item Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D6) was published online in BMC Psychiatry. The key finding is the HAM-D6 scale identified statistically significant improvements in all three clinical endpoints remission, response and symptoms between GeneSight-guided care and treatment-as-usual at Week 8 (Figure 1).

The HAM-D6 scale has been shown to be a better measure of core depressive symptoms than the HAM-D17 scale, said Boadie W. Dunlop, M.D., one of the study investigators and associate professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University School of Medicine. This post hoc analysis provides further evidence that the GeneSight test led to significant and clinically meaningful improvements in clinical outcomes for patients with major depressive disorder relative to treatment-as-usual care.

To view Figure 1: GeneSight Test Significantly Improved Clinical Outcomes by Week 8 (HAM-D6), please visit the following link: https://www.globenewswire.com/NewsRoom/AttachmentNg/980daabb-fd8c-4bbb-b56e-48795fa16bdb

The GUIDED study was the largest prospective study to assess the benefit of pharmacogenomics-guided treatment for depression using the GeneSight Psychotropic test versus an active therapy control arm. All patients in the GUIDED study had the 17-item HAM-D17 questionnaire administered by blinded off-site raters as part of the study protocol. The 6-item HAM-D6 score represents a subset of HAM-D17 questions that have been shown to be more directly linked to depression. For example, questions such as have you had trouble sleeping which could be associated with conditions other than depression are excluded from the HAM-D6 score. Clinical studies have shown that the HAM-D6 score is superior to HAM-D17 at discriminating antidepressants from placebo.

About GeneSight PsychotropicGeneSight Psychotropic is a pharmacogenomic test that analyzes clinically important variations in DNA. The results of the test can inform doctors about genes that may impact how their patients metabolize or respond to depression medications.

About Myriad GeneticsMyriad Genetics Inc., is a leading precision medicine company dedicated to being a trusted advisor transforming patient lives worldwide with pioneering molecular diagnostics. Myriad discovers and commercializes molecular diagnostic tests that: determine the risk of developing disease, accurately diagnose disease, assess the risk of disease progression, and guide treatment decisions across six major medical specialties where molecular diagnostics can significantly improve patient care and lower healthcare costs. Myriad is focused on five critical success factors: building upon a solid hereditary cancer foundation, growing new product volume, expanding reimbursement coverage for new products, increasing RNA kit revenue internationally and improving profitability with Elevate 2020. For more information on how Myriad is making a difference, please visit the Companys website: http://www.myriad.com.

Myriad, the Myriad logo, BART, BRACAnalysis, Colaris, Colaris AP, myPath, myRisk, Myriad myRisk, myRisk Hereditary Cancer, myChoice, myPlan, BRACAnalysis CDx, Tumor BRACAnalysis CDx, myChoice CDx, EndoPredict, Vectra, GeneSight, riskScore, Prolaris, ForeSight and Prequel are trademarks or registered trademarks of Myriad Genetics, Inc. or its wholly owned subsidiaries in the United States and foreign countries. MYGN-F, MYGN-G.

Safe Harbor StatementThis press release contains forward-looking statements within the meaning of the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995, including statements relating to a new analysis of the GUIDED clinical trial published online in BMC Psychiatry; and the Companys strategic directives under the caption About Myriad Genetics. These forward-looking statements are based on managements current expectations of future events and are subject to a number of risks and uncertainties that could cause actual results to differ materially and adversely from those set forth in or implied by forward-looking statements. These risks and uncertainties include, but are not limited to: the risk that sales and profit margins of our molecular diagnostic tests and pharmaceutical and clinical services may decline; risks related to our ability to transition from our existing product portfolio to our new tests, including unexpected costs and delays; risks related to decisions or changes in governmental or private insurers reimbursement levels for our tests or our ability to obtain reimbursement for our new tests at comparable levels to our existing tests; risks related to increased competition and the development of new competing tests and services; the risk that we may be unable to develop or achieve commercial success for additional molecular diagnostic tests and pharmaceutical and clinical services in a timely manner, or at all; the risk that we may not successfully develop new markets for our molecular diagnostic tests and pharmaceutical and clinical services, including our ability to successfully generate revenue outside the United States; the risk that licenses to the technology underlying our molecular diagnostic tests and pharmaceutical and clinical services and any future tests and services are terminated or cannot be maintained on satisfactory terms; risks related to delays or other problems with operating our laboratory testing facilities and our healthcare clinic; risks related to public concern over genetic testing in general or our tests in particular; risks related to regulatory requirements or enforcement in the United States and foreign countries and changes in the structure of the healthcare system or healthcare payment systems; risks related to our ability to obtain new corporate collaborations or licenses and acquire new technologies or businesses on satisfactory terms, if at all; risks related to our ability to successfully integrate and derive benefits from any technologies or businesses that we license or acquire; risks related to our projections about our business, results of operations and financial condition; risks related to the potential market opportunity for our products and services; the risk that we or our licensors may be unable to protect or that third parties will infringe the proprietary technologies underlying our tests; the risk of patent-infringement claims or challenges to the validity of our patents or other intellectual property; risks related to changes in intellectual property laws covering our molecular diagnostic tests and pharmaceutical and clinical services and patents or enforcement in the United States and foreign countries; risks of new, changing and competitive technologies and regulations in the United States and internationally; the risk that we may be unable to comply with financial operating covenants under our credit or lending agreements; the risk that we will be unable to pay, when due, amounts due under our credit or lending agreements; and other factors discussed under the heading Risk Factors contained in Item 1A of our most recent Annual Report on Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2019, which has been filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission, as well as any updates to those risk factors filed from time to time in our Quarterly Reports on Form 10-Q or Current Reports on Form 8-K. All information in this press release is as of the date of the release, and Myriad undertakes no duty to update this information unless required by law.

Media Contact: Ron Rogers Investor Contact: Scott Gleason (801) 584-3065 (801) 584-1143 rrogers@myriad.com sgleason@myriad.com

1 Greden JF, Parikh SV, Rothschild AJ, et al. Impact of pharmacogenomics on clinical outcomes in major depressive disorder in the GUIDED trial: A large, patient- and rater-blinded, randomized, controlled study. J Psychiatr Res. 2019; 111:59-67.

Link:
New Publication Demonstrates GeneSight Improved All Clinical Outcomes Using HAM-D6 Analysis in Large Prospective GUIDED Study - Associated Press

Biochemistry

Global Chitin and Chitin Derivatives Market Industry Trends and Forecast to 2025 | Yunzhou Biochemistry Co., Advanced Biopolymers AS, Biophrame…

The global chitin and chitin derivatives market report provides with CAGR value fluctuation during the forecast period of 2018-2025 for the market. The numerical data is backed up by statistical tools such as SWOT analysis, porters five forces analysis and else. The readers will find this report very helpful in understanding the chitin and chitin derivatives market in depth. This study also analyzes the market status, market share, growth rate, future trends, market drivers, opportunities and challenges, risks and entry barriers, sales channels, distributors and porters five forces analysis.

Get Sample Analysis of This Market Information:https://databridgemarketresearch.com/request-a-sample/?dbmr=global-chitin-chitin-derivatives-market

Global Chitin and Chitin Derivatives Market accounted for USD 2.3 billion in 2017 and is projected to grow at a CAGR of 15.8% during the forecast period of 2018 to 2025. The upcoming market report contains data for historic years 2015, 2016, the base year of calculation is 2017 and the forecast period is 2018 to 2025.

Chitin is obtained from shrimp, crab and lobster waste. Chitin has wide range of application in food and beverages, agrochemical industry, healthcare industry among others. Some of the major players in Global Chitin and Chitin Derivatives Market include:-

Yunzhou Biochemistry Co.

Advanced Biopolymers AS

Biophrame Technologies

United Chitotechnologies Inc.

Koyo World (Hong Kong) Co. Ltd.

Dainichiseika Color & Chemicals Mfg. Co. Ltd.

Agratech LLC.

Kraeber & Co. GmbH

Foodchem International Corporation

FMC Corporation

GTC Bio Corporation

Panvo Organics Pvt., Ltd.

KitoZyme S.A.

Xianju Tengwang Chitosan Factory

Golden-Shell Pharmaceutical Co.

PT Biotech Surindo

TaizhouCandorly Sea Biochemical & Health Products Co. Lt

Heppe Medical Chitosan GmbH

Sonat Co

Kunpoong Bio Co. Ltd

The Global Chitin and Chitin Derivatives Market are fragmented with the presence of a large number of players across different regions. These major players have adopted various organic as well as inorganic growth strategies such as mergers & acquisitions, new product launches, expansions, agreements, joint ventures, partnerships, and others to strengthen their position in this market.

Get TOC For Full Analysis Of Report:https://databridgemarketresearch.com/toc/?dbmr=global-chitin-chitin-derivatives-market

Market Drivers:

Waste and water treatment to offer significant growth opportunities for chitin market in the coming years

Increasing need of chitin in biomedical and biopharmaceutical industry.

Easy raw material availability

Market Restraint:

As it is derived from natural resources such as crabs, extinction of the species may raise environmental concerns.

Synopsis of the report:

1. Major players and brands

2. Drivers and restrains of the market

3. Industry Chain Suppliers of Chitin and Chitin Derivatives Market with Contact Information

4. Historical, current and projected market size in terms of volume and value

5. In-depth market segmentation

6. Competitive landscape

Market Segmentation:

on the basis of Derivative Type

Glucosamine,

Chitosan,

Others

On the basis of end user:

Food and Beverages,

Agrochemical,

Healthcare,

Cosmetics and Toiletries,

Waste and Water Treatment,

Others

On the basis of geography:

North America,

South America,

Europe,

Asia-Pacific,

Middle East & Africa.

Note: If you have any special requirements, please let us know and we will offer you the report as you want.

Want Full Report? Enquire Here:https://databridgemarketresearch.com/inquire-before-buying/?dbmr=global-chitin-chitin-derivatives-market

About Data Bridge Market Research:

Data Bridge Market Research set forth itself as an unconventional and neoteric Market research and consulting firm with unparalleled level of resilience and integrated approaches. We are determined to unearth the best market opportunities and foster efficient information for your business to thrive in the market. Data Bridge endeavors to provide appropriate solutions to the complex business challenges and initiates an effortless decision-making process.

Contact:

Data Bridge Market Research

Tel: +1-888-387-281

Email: sopan.geda[emailprotected]

Go here to read the rest:
Global Chitin and Chitin Derivatives Market Industry Trends and Forecast to 2025 | Yunzhou Biochemistry Co., Advanced Biopolymers AS, Biophrame...

Neuroscience

While AI Is All the Rage, What Is Neuroscience Up To? – Fair Observer

Ever sincethe term artificial intelligence (AI) was coined in 1956, it has had a closerelationship with neuroscience. Initial concepts of building machines capableof logical thinking were derived from mathematical logic and informationtheory, but the driving force behind AI was the desire to mimic human brainfunction. Over the years, AI has captured our imagination by winning againsthumans in games like chess or Jeopardy.Yet how has neuroscience impacted our understanding of ourselves?

READ MORE

Going by media attention, it seems like AI is taking over the world. In fields as diverse as speech and image recognition, factory automation, stock trading and fraud detection, AI is pushing the envelope every day. It is being considered the backbone of the impending Fourth Industrial Revolution, which has spawned fears of large-scale disappearance of blue-collar and even white-collar jobs, coupled with predictions of global social unrest. Henry Kissinger, Bill Gates and Elon Musk, among others, have voiced their concerns about the ethical and moral quandaries posed by AI, but a closer examination reveals that advances in neurosciences have more profound implications for humanity.

In theshort run, artificial intelligence has outpaced our understanding of the brainbecause AI was built from the ground up, while brain research is primarilyreverse engineering. Our ever-expanding ability to pack more and moretransistors building blocks of digital circuits in increasingly smallerdevices has allowed AI researchers to build powerful, number-crunching machines.And an explosion of connectivity has ensured easy availability of informationacross the globe, making it easy to build intelligent machines.

On theother hand, each adult human brain has roughly 100 billion neurons; each one ofthem connected to, on average, 1,000 neurons. They communicate by way ofbiochemically generated electrical signals, which are more subtle or noisy thanthose flowing through man-made electronic circuits. We can use MRIs and CATscans to glean some information about brain function, but they do not providecellular-level detail, depriving us of critical details of informationprocessing abilities of neuronal networks.

Nonetheless, several new techniques are giving us unprecedented access to the inner workings of brain circuits. Simultaneous recordings from an array of microscopic probes allow us to observe the electrical activity of a group of neighboring neurons. Functional MRI scans, while performing cognitive tasks, tell us which parts of the brain are used to perform the task. Cellular imaging illuminates the neurons that are electrically active almost instantaneously as the brain is performing various tasks, allowing us to see how information flows to and from various parts of the brain in real-time. And optogenetics enables us to go one step further. Otherwise, light-insensitive neurons can now be genetically modified to make them light-sensitive.

Once thatis achieved, every time we shine light on those neurons, which is typically alaser, they become electrically active. Observing the behavior of the animalwhile activating specific parts of the brain can help us understand the rolesthey play. Together, these techniques are opening up a Pandoras box regardingour understanding of human ethics, politics and our belief in free will.

In the ongoing debate about Harvard Universitys bias against Asian Americans in their admission policy, documents revealed that Harvard consistently rates Asian Americans lower than others on personal traits like courage and likability in spite of their higher-than-average scores in SATs and ACTs. These standardized tests presumably assess attention and working memory capabilities, claiming that the scores are reliable predictors of future success.

Neuroscience might soon provide better assessment tools. Numerous studies have already established that areas like the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) play a critical role in tasks that demand high levels of attention and working memory. Researchers have also demonstrated that mindfulness practices like meditation can enhance the structure and function of ACC and DLPFC. Furthermore, they might even boost SAT scores.

It is anopen secret that cultural affinity for rote learning and long hours of practicehelp Asian Americans ace SATs and ACTs. If tomorrows brain scans establishthat the size and/or activity of ACC and DLPFC in simpler tasks are betterpredictors of future success, they might obviate the need for such gruelingtests. The outcome of such scans could take away the advantage of AsianAmericans in test scores or solidify their claims at a biological level. Inthat case, it is worth pondering whether brain scans should be used by futureadmissions committees.

Neuroscience is creating several such ethical dilemmas, but perhaps its effect on our understanding of monogamy is the most intriguing. A series of experiments on prairie voles and montane voles both rodent species suggests that preference for single vs. multiple sexual partners might be rooted in brain chemistry. While the two rodent species are genetically almost identical, prairie voles are monogamous and montane voles are promiscuous.

A highlevel of oxytocin is observed after copulation in both the species, and it isfamously known as the cuddling hormone, leading to lasting pair bonds betweenmates. However, only prairie voles have the receptors, or molecular detectors,to sense those high levels. Drawing inferences about human behavior based onstudies of voles might be a leap of faith today, but imagine the societaloutrage if it is established that your genes and brain chemistry determine yoursexual behavior.

Ourpolitics is another area that neuroscience has started shedding light on. Eversince the US presidential election in 2016, much has been said about Russiansusing social media to spread disinformation and polarize the electorate. Whatif brain scans can predict your political leanings better than tracking youronline behavior?

Some of the earliest neuroscientific studies of politics showed that, once again, the structure of ACC and its electrical activity during a specific cognitive task predicted the political leanings of study subjects with reasonable accuracy. In another study, conservatives give more weight to negative stimuli than positive ones compared to liberals. Several experiments have strengthened the conclusions, so much so that brain responses to a single disgusting, non-political visual stimulus were sufficient to accurately predict the volunteers political leaning. If casual brain scans become affordable and political consultants get access to them, legally or otherwise, we will enter a whole new era of political messaging, microtargeting and controlling masses.

Almost all of these insights are based on passive brain scans or behavioral observations. By giving us the ability to directly control brain activity, optogenetics is fundamentally altering our sense of who we are. In 2008, neuroscientists at Stanford University demonstrated how genetically modifying a specific part of a mouse brain to make it light-sensitive, and then shining a light on it, allows us to control when it runs with a flip of a switch. A more recent study at Yale University showed that aggressive, predatory behavior in mice can similarly be controlled with a switch.

Suchexperiments might be an affront to our belief in free will, but it is scarierto imagine a future in which brains of soldiers are controlled to have their killmode on during war and off when not on the battlefield. If we go a stepfurther to discuss who should control such switches, it threatens ourprevailing understanding of personal responsibility and rules of engagement ininternational conflicts.

AI poses achallenge to our professional lives, but neuroscience goes to the heart of whowe are as ethical, political and free-thinking creatures. To avoid large-scalesocial disruption, the adoption of AI might be easier to contain, but under theguise of social harmony, authoritarian leaders of tomorrow might find the toolsof neuroscience too tempting to resist.

The views expressed in this article are the authors own and donot necessarily reflect Fair Observers editorial policy.

Here is the original post:
While AI Is All the Rage, What Is Neuroscience Up To? - Fair Observer

Neuroscience

These Breakthroughs Made the 2010s the Decade of the Brain – Singularity Hub

I rarely use the words transformative or breakthrough for neuroscience findings. The brain is complex, noisy, chaotic, and often unpredictable. One intriguing result under one condition may soon fail for a majority of others. Whats more, paradigm-shifting research trends often require revolutionary tools. When were lucky, those come once a decade.

But I can unabashedly say that the 2010s saw a boom in neuroscience breakthroughs that transformed the field and will resonate long into the upcoming decade.

In 2010, the idea that wed be able to read minds, help paralyzed people walk again, incept memories, or have multi-layered brain atlases was near incomprehensible. Few predicted that deep learning, an AI model loosely inspired by neural processing in the brain, would gain prominence and feed back into decoding the brain. Around 2011, I asked a now-prominent AI researcher if we could automatically detect dying neurons in a microscope image using deep neural nets; we couldnt get it to work. Today, AI is readily helping read, write, and map the brain.

As we cross into the next decade, it pays to reflect on the paradigm shifts that made the 2010s the decade of the brain. Even as a boo humbug skeptic Im optimistic about the next decade for solving the brains mysteries: from genetics and epigenetics to chemical and electrical communications, networks, and cognition, well only get better at understanding and tactfully controlling the supercomputer inside our heads.

Weve covered brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) so many times even my eyes start glazing over. Yet I still remember my jaw dropping as I watched a paralyzed man kick off the 2014 World Cup in a bulky mind-controlled exosuit straight out of Edge of Tomorrow.

Flash forward a few years, and scientists have already ditched the exosuit for an implanted neural prosthesis that replaces severed nerves to re-establish communication between the brains motor centers and lower limbs.

The rise in BCIs owes much to the BrainGate project, which worked tirelessly to decode movement from electrical signals in the motor cortex, allowing paralyzed patients to use a tablet with their minds or operate robotic limbs. Today, prosthetic limbs coated with sensors can feed back into the brain, giving patients mind-controlled movement, sense of touch, and an awareness of where the limb is in space. Similarly, by decoding electrical signals in the auditory or visual cortex, neural implants can synthesize a persons speech by reconstructing what theyre hearing or re-create images of what theyre seeingor even of what theyre dreaming.

For now, most BCIsespecially those that require surgical implantsare mainly used to give speech or movement back to those with disabilities or decode visual signals. The brain regions that support all these functions are on the surface, making them relatively more accessible and easier to decode.

But theres plenty of interest in using the same technology to target less tangible brain issues, such as depression, OCD, addiction, and other psychiatric disorders that stem from circuits deep within the brain. Several trials using implanted electrodes, for example, have shown dramatic improvement in people suffering from depression that dont respond to pharmaceutical drugs, but the results vary significantly between individuals.

The next decade may see non-invasive ways to manipulate brain activity, such as focused ultrasound, transcranial magnetic or direct current stimulation (TMS/tDCS), and variants of optogenetics. Along with increased understanding of brain networks and dynamics, we may be able to play select neural networks like a piano and realize the dream of treating psychiatric disorders at their root.

Rarely does one biological research field get such tremendous support from multiple governments. Yet the 2010s saw an explosion in government-backed neuroscience initiatives from the US, EU, and Japan, with China, South Korea, Canada, and Australia in the process of finalizing their plans. These multi-year, multi-million-dollar projects focus on developing new tools to suss out the brains inner workings, such as how it learns, how it controls behavior, and how it goes wrong. For some, the final goal is to simulate a working human brain inside a supercomputer, forming an invaluable model for researchers to test out their hypothesesand maybe act as a blueprint for one day reconstructing all of a persons neural connections, called the connectome.

Even as initial announcements were met with skepticismwhat exactly is the project trying to achieve?the projects allowed something previously unthinkable. The infusion of funding provided a safety blanket to develop new microscopy tools to ever-more-rapidly map the brain, resulting in a toolkit of new fluorescent indicators that track neural activation and map neural circuits. Even rudimentary simulations have generated virtual epilepsy patients to help more precisely pinpoint sources of seizures. A visual prosthesis to restore sight, a memory prosthesis to help those with faltering recall, and a push for non-invasive ways to manipulate human brains all stemmed from these megaprojects.

Non-profit institutions such as the Allen Institute for Brain Science have also joined the effort, producing map after map at different resolutions of various animal brains. The upcoming years will see individual brain maps pieced together into comprehensive atlases that cover everything from genetics to cognition, transforming our understanding of brain function from paper-based 2D maps into multi-layered Google Maps.

In a way, these national programs ushered in the golden age of brain science, bringing talent from other disciplinesengineers, statisticians, physicists, computer scientistsinto neuroscience. Early successes will likely drive even more investment in the next decade, especially as findings begin translating into actual therapies for people who dont respond to traditional mind-targeting drugs. The next decade will likely see innovative new tools that manipulate neural activity more precisely and less-invasively than optogenetics. The rapid rise in the amount of data will also mean that neuroscientists will quickly embrace cloud-storage options for collaborative research and GPUs and more powerful computing cores to process the data.

First, brain to AI. The physical structure and information flow in the cortex inspired deep learning, the most prominent AI model today. Ideas such as hippocampal replaythe brains memory center replays critical events in fast forward during sleep to help consolidate memoryalso benefit AI models.

In addition, the activation patterns of individual neurons merged with materials science to build neuromorphic chips, or processors that function more like the brain, rather than todays silicon-based chips. Although neuromorphic chips remain mainly an academic curiosity, they have the potential to perform complicated, parallel computations at a fraction of the energy used by processors today. As deep neural nets get ever-more power hungry, neuromorphic chips may present a welcome alternative.

In return, AI algorithms that closely model the brain are helping solve long-time mysteries of the brain, such as how the visual cortex processes input. In a way, the complexity and unpredictability of neurobiology is shriveling thanks to these computational advancements.

Although crossovers between biomedical research and digital software have long existedthink programs that help with drug designthe match between neuroscience and AI is far stronger and more intimate. As AI becomes more powerful and neuroscientists collaborate outside their field, computational tools will only unveil more intricacies of neural processing, including more intangible aspects such as memory, decision-making, or emotions.

I talk a bunch about the brains electrical activity, but supporting that activity are genes and proteins. Neurons also arent a uniform bunch; multiple research groups are piecing together a whos who of the brains neural parts and their individual characteristics.

Although invented in the late 2000s, technologies such as optogenetics and single-cell RNA sequencing were widely adopted by the neuroscience community in the 2010s. Optogenetics allows researchers to control neurons with light, even in freely moving animals going about their lives. Add to that a whole list of rainbow-colored proteins to tag active cells, and its possible to implant memories. Single-cell RNA sequencing is the queen bee of deciphering a cells identity, allowing scientists to understand the genetic expression profile of any given neuron. This tech is instrumental in figuring out the neuron populations that make up a brain at any point in timeinfancy, youth, aging.

But perhaps the crown in new tools goes to brain organoids, or mini-brains, that remarkably resemble those of preterm babies, making them excellent models of the developing brain. Organoids may be our best chance of figuring out the neurobiology of autism, schizophrenia, and other developmental brain issues that are difficult to model with mice. This decade is when scientists established a cookbook for organoids of different types; the next will see far more studies that tap into their potential for modeling a growing brain. With hard work and luck, we may finally be able to tease out the root causes of these developmental issues.

Image Credit: NIH

Read the original post:
These Breakthroughs Made the 2010s the Decade of the Brain - Singularity Hub

Neuroscience

Study ties gene active in developing brain to autism – Spectrum

Puzzling injury: Some children who carry variants in a gene called ZNF292 have injured blood vessels in their brains.

Mutations in a gene called ZNF292 lead to a variety of developmental conditions, including autism and intellectual disability, according to a new study1.

ZNF292 encodes a protein that influences the expression of other genes. It is highly expressed in the developing human brain, particularly in the cerebellum, an area that controls voluntary movement and contributes to cognition. However, its function in neurodevelopment is unknown.

Scientists first linked ZNF292 to intellectual disability in a 2012 study. A 2018 analysis of five ZNF292 variants tied the gene to autism, but the work was preliminary2.

In the new study, researchers identified 28 people who have mutations in ZNF292. The participants come from six countries and are between 10 months and 24 years old. The group carries a total of 24 mutations in the gene, 23 of which are spontaneous meaning that they were not inherited from a parent.

The sheer number of families and children that have been identified so far has been quite high, says Ghayda Mirzaa, lead investigator and assistant professor of genetic medicine at Seattle Childrens Hospital in Washington.

All but one of the participants have intellectual disability. In total, 17 of the participants are suspected or confirmed to have autism and 9 are suspected or confirmed to have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. All but two have speech delays, and four have had language regression or are minimally verbal.

Mirzaas team found an additional 15 people with mutations in the gene from 12 families. However, the data from these people were incomplete, so the researchers had to exclude them from the analysis. The team has connected with at least 10 other mutation carriers in the six weeks since the study was published in Genetics in Medicine.

The researchers have used their data to classify a new condition. However, it may be premature to call it a syndromic form of autism or intellectual disability, says Holly Stessman, assistant professor of pharmacology and neuroscience at Creighton University in Omaha, Nebraska, who was not involved in the work.

People with ZNF292 variants have a broad spectrum of physical traits. For instance, 11 of the people in the study have growth abnormalities such as short stature; 10 have low muscle tone; and 3 have stiff or mixed muscle tone. The researchers had access to magnetic resonance imaging scans for 17 of the participants: 9 show brain abnormalities such as atypically shaped regions, and 3 of those 9 appear to have blood-vessel injuries in the brain.

Nearly half of the participants also have unusual facial characteristics, including an undersized jaw or eyes that are unusually far apart. Vision problems, such as involuntary eye movement or crossed eyes, affect nine people in the group. Less common facial differences include prominent incisors and protruding ears.

Autism genes are often linked to a wide range of characteristics, says Santhosh Girirajan, associate professor of biochemistry and molecular biology at Pennsylvania State University, who was not involved in the study. Variability has become the rule now, rather than the exception, he says.

Mirzaa says her group plans to study more individuals with variants in ZNF292, and to investigate the genes function.

See the original post here:
Study ties gene active in developing brain to autism - Spectrum

Neuroscience

Brain Mapping Instruments Market Demand, Growth, Opportunities and Analysis Of Top Key Player Forecast To 2026 – Instanews247

The utilization of brain mapping instruments has expanded because of increasing occurrences of brain ailments in different parts of the world. Increasing health concerns and enhanced healthcare infrastructure are a few of the foremost aspects driving the expansion of the worldwide market for brain mapping instruments. Furthermore, an increasing number of diagnostics centers is likewise driving the expansion of the market. Nonetheless, poor healthcare insurance coverage and high expenses related to the brain mapping procedure are limiting the expansion of the worldwide market for brain mapping instruments. Also, lack of helium for magnetic resonance imaging systems, saturation in mature markets and technological constraints related to independent systems are likewise constraining expansion of the worldwide market.

Request For Report Sample:https://www.trendsmarketresearch.com/report/sample/3249

High affecting aspects, for example, continuous brain mapping investigation and examination projects, neuroscience-based activities by government bodies as well as technological progressions in algorithms and tools which are applied in neuroscience space are considered to enhance the market expansion. These variables are foreseen to support revenue generation by impelling the product implementation in this market over the years to follow.

The existence of institutes & organizations, for example, NIH, University of Utah, NeuroScience Canada, Ontario Brain Institute, Max Planck Florida Institute, along with the University of Pennsylvania; in the space are anticipated to significantly affect the advancement of neuroscience field. These entities act a significant part in quickening neuroscience-based r&d to enhance patient results in those suffering from neurological ailments.

Various activities are embraced by the healthcare communities to take cerebrum related innovations and studies above and beyond. For example, in 2014, the University of Utah presented the Neuroscience Initiative keeping in mind the end goal to help mitigate the staggering impacts of brain disorders. The launch was made for developing the understanding of the impacts of brain disorders on wellbeing and channelizing the learning into inventive solutions for patient care.

Constant presentation of new products by prominent market players in the market to the battle different neurological issue will probably support the Y-O-Y development of this market. For example, in September 2015, Codman Neuro (functioning unit of DePuy Synthes) presented CODMAN CERTAS plus programmable valve, an MRI-safe programmable valve along with eight dissimilar weight settings.

Moreover, key aspects that have quickened the research studies about in this field is the development of a number of different harmful CNS issues, for example, Alzheimers and Parkinsonism sickness. As geriatric populace is inclined to different central sensory systems related disorders, for example, Alzheimers, schizophrenia and Parkinsonism with the rise in the aging populace, this market is foreseen to see lucrative development.

The requirement for minimally invasive, more precise along with manifold neuron recording system is additionally anticipated that would drive r&d of hardware and software utilized for neuro-scientific analyses. This, thusly, is considered to reinforce the overall product portfolio accessible in the market and enhance revenues all through the years to come.

Get Complete ToC with Tables and Figures at :https://www.trendsmarketresearch.com/report/requesttoc/3249

Enhancing healthcare infrastructure in developing nations, for example, India and China would generate prospects for the worldwide market for brain mapping instruments. Expanding implementation of refurbished diagnostic imaging systems would represent a challenge for expansion of the mind-brain mapping instruments market globally. A few of the foremost companies functioning in the global market are Philips Healthcare, GE Healthcare, Natus Medical, Inc and Siemens Healthcare. Other market players active in the market are Nihon Kohden Corporation, Covidien, PLC., and Advanced Brain Monitoring, Inc.

Partnerships and collaboration are preferred as a feasible strategy to remain competitory in the market by foremost companies. Companies are engrossed in strategic alliances outside the region and within the region, which helps the expansion of both the parties along with the connected regional market.

Report Description:https://www.trendsmarketresearch.com/report/brain-mapping-instruments-market

View post:
Brain Mapping Instruments Market Demand, Growth, Opportunities and Analysis Of Top Key Player Forecast To 2026 - Instanews247

Immunology

Trabectedin Targets Leukemic Cells and Restores Immune Cell Function in Models of Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia – Cancer Therapy Advisor

The marine-derived compound trabectedin depletes both human primary leukemic cells and myeloid-derived suppressor cells, according to a new study published in Cancer Immunology Research.1 The researchers think their findings could lead to a new therapy that targets both leukemic cells and the protumor microenvironment, repairing the immune dysfunction that is characteristic of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL).

CLLis characterized by lymphocyte accumulation in the blood, bone marrow, andlymphoid tissues.2 Recent advances in CLL therapy have come fromfinding and targeting the appropriate molecular pathways of the disease,explained Kanti R. Rai, MD, a professor of medicine and molecular medicine atthe Donald and Barbara Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra/Northwell whowasnt involved in the study. Dr Rai said that, for instance, the Brutontyrosine kinase inhibitor ibrutinib binds to the receptor and affects B-cellreceptorsignaling. Another drug, venetoclax, an antagonist to BCL2, can effectivelyinduce apoptosis in CLL cells. However, treatment of this disease remainschallenging due to its immunosuppressive nature. If we [are] to attain a cure,newer compounds have to be identified which have a different mechanism ofcontrolling CLL, he said.

Patientswith CLL have dysfunctional T cells, noted Maria Teresa Bertilaccio, PhD, whois an assistant professor in the department of experimental therapeutics at TheUniversity of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center in Houston, and the correspondingauthor of the study. Patients [with CLL] have immunosuppression features, sothey might develop an infection because their immune system is not working,she told Cancer Therapy Advisor. Our approach is not only to eradicateleukemia, but also to rearm the immune system to give patients a better qualityof life.

Trabectedintargets tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs); TAMs are thought to support CLLgrowth. A previous study by the Bertilaccio group showed that depleting TAMs byblocking CSF1R signaling reprograms the tumor microenvironment toward anantitumor phenotype.3 This led them to hypothesize that trabectedincould simultaneously target both leukemic cells and nonmalignant cells in thetumor microenvironment.

Continued here:
Trabectedin Targets Leukemic Cells and Restores Immune Cell Function in Models of Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia - Cancer Therapy Advisor