Biochemistry

Is it Hemp or Marijuana? – Discover Magazine

Hemp istechnically legal in Texas, but proving that hemp is not marijuana can be a hurdle,requiring testing in a licensed laboratory. So, when a truck carrying thousandsof pounds of hemp was recently detained by law enforcement near Amarillo, thedriver spent weeks in jail awaiting confirmation that the cargo waslegal.

Stories likethat one inspired a team of Texas A&MAgriLife researchersto find a way to use a handheld spectrometer as a hempscannerthat could easily fit in a police cruiser and distinguish hemp and marijuanainstantly, without damaging any of the product.

In 2019,Texas lawmakers made a distinction between hemp and marijuana based on thelevel of THC, or tetrahydrocannabinol, in a plant. THC is the majorpsychoactive agent in marijuana. If a plant has less than 0.3% THC, it isdesignated hemp.

Dr. Dmitry Kurouski, assistant professor of biochemistry and biophysics at the Texas A&M University College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, led the study on using a handheld spectrometer as a way to instantly distinguish hemp from marijuana.

Both federaland state restrictions on hemp have loosened in recent years. As a result, thevalue of hemp has skyrocketed, said DmitryKurouski,Ph.D., assistant professor of biochemistry and biophysics at the Texas A&M University College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, who led thestudy. Hemp is rich in compounds that are prized for their medicinal propertiesand flavor. The most well-known is CBD, or cannabidiol, which is thought tohelp with pain, anxiety and depression.

But farmers wantingto grow valuable hemp plants need a way to know that the plants contain littleto no THC. Texas producers need to know if their plants THC levels areapproaching 0.3%, which would classify the plants as marijuana and thereforeillegal to have and grow. An easy test for THC would be a boon for farmers aswell as for law enforcement.

Kurouski saidthat the catalyst for using the portable scanner was his colleague DavidBaltensperger, Ph.D., professor of soil and crop sciences at the Texas A&MUniversity College of Agriculture and Life Sciences. Baltensperger had workedwith both farmers and police officers and knew about the demand for a bettertest for THC, Kurouski said.

Kurouskislab was experienced in using a technique called Raman spectroscopy to createquick and noninvasive tests for plant diseases and foodsnutritional content. The technique uses harmless laser light to illuminate structureswithin materials. Each materials scan is unique, akin to a fingerprint.

Kurouski hada hunch that Raman could be used to create a quick and accurate test for THC. Aportable Raman scanner had been utilized for previous studies by lab membersLee Sanchez, a research assistant, and Charles Farber, a graduate student.

Lee Sanchez, research assistant of biochemistry and biophysics at the Texas A&M University College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, tested the samples near Denver, where recreational marijuana is legal.

What was thenneeded was a way to scan many marijuana and hemp plants in order to search forpatterns in how their Raman spectra differed.

Testingdozens of samples of marijuana and hemp fell to Sanchez. The testing needed tohappen near Denver, where recreational marijuana is legal.

Lee Sanchezwas the hero who was traveling to Colorado three times, staying there in hotelsand driving from one location to another. Most of those locations are old firestations. They are not fancy greenhouses but old, shaky buildings with plantsinside, Kurouski said.

Back inTexas, Sanchez and Kurouski analyzed the collected spectra. A statisticalanalysis method found seven regions in the spectra that differed slightly amongmarijuana and hemp varieties tested, a high-tech version of the spot thedifference brain teaser. Taken together, the readout in these seven regionsdistinguished the hemp and marijuana varieties tested with 100% accuracy.

Now that Kurouskis team has demonstrated its quick, noninvasive test for THC, the next step is to collaborate with industry to make the test available to the public.

We knowplants from A to Z in terms of their spectroscopic signature, Kurouski said.But when we saw such a crystal-clear picture of THC that appeared in onesecond of spectral acquisition, that was mind-blowing.

Now thatKurouskis team has demonstrated its quick, noninvasive test for THC, they arelooking to collaborate with industry to make their test available to thepublic.

The team alsoaims to create a similar test for CBD. Farmers looking to grow hemp may want toknow the amount of CBD in their plants to better estimate their value.

The studyalso demonstrated the ability to use the scanner to differentiate varieties ofmarijuana. In the changing legal landscape, there are thousands of varieties ofcannabis, many of questionable quality.

Ourcolleagues, the farmers, were positively surprised that we could identify thevariety with 98% accuracy, Kurouski said. That blew them away.

A communityof scholars driven to create positive impacts around the world, Texas A&MUniversity embraces determination, innovation, and creativity.

Texas A&Mis one of the largestresearch universities in the United States and is one of only 17 institutions in thenation to hold the triple designation as a land-, sea-, and space-grantuniversity. Our faculty-researchers generated more than $952 million inresearch expenditures in FY 2019, all while enhancing undergraduate andgraduate education by providing hands-on research.

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Is it Hemp or Marijuana? - Discover Magazine

Anatomy

2367 Best human anatomy pictures images | Human anatomy …

See more ideas about Human anatomy picture, Human anatomy and Human body. Jun 19, 2019 - Get introduced to the major organ systems of the human body. See more ideas about Human anatomy picture, Human anatomy and Human body. Stay safe and healthy. Please practice hand-washing and social distancing, and check out our resources for adapting to ...

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Anatomy

Human Anatomy and Physiology Practice Tests

Take the Varsity Learning Tools free diagnostic test for Human Anatomy and Physiology to determine which academic concepts you understand and which ones require your ongoing attention. Each Human Anatomy and Physiology problem is tagged down to the core, underlying concept that is being tested. The Human Anatomy and Physiology diagnostic test results highlight how you performed on each area of the test. You can then utilize the results to create a personalized study plan that is based on your particular area of need.

Anatomy and Physiology may be presented as two different subjects, but they are so closely linked that they are impossible to separate. In Elementary Biology, you learn that structure, even at the level of molecular biology, is directly tied to function. Anatomy and Physiology classes apply this rule in much greater detail. You gain in-depth knowledge of structures in the Anatomy sections of the course, and you are introduced to the specific implications of these structures in the Physiology section.

Instruction in Anatomy often begins by discussing bodily structures including muscles, bones, organs, connective tissues, nerves, and vasculature. You learn the mechanics of these structures, implementing some biophysics material into your understanding of biological structures. It becomes important to understand the mechanical properties of various tissues during the physiological analysis, including force-tension analyses, bone structures, bioelectrical conduction, and other characteristics of muscle, bone, and nerves.

In Anatomy, you also need to learn the names and positions of numerous structures, which requires a great deal of memorization. You become familiar with the actions, origins, and insertions of muscles, as well as the various protrusions and contours of the bones. Neuroanatomy is often a point of focus, requiring you to learn both the topical anatomy of the brain and the sub-cortical structures. Neural and muscular anatomy generally compose the majority of Anatomy course content.

Anatomy is essentially the foundation from which you can build an understanding of Physiology. Once you are familiar with the orientation of various structures and their integration with one another, you can begin to apply functional significance to these relationships. Physiology focuses on the causes and effects of various bodily functions. Physiological content will often parallel the depth to which anatomical content was previously covered. For example, since Anatomy frequently focuses on nerves and muscles, Physiology often pays particular attention to these groups. In Physiology, you learn in-depth mechanisms of action potential propagation and neural regulation, muscle contraction theories and neuromuscular junction mechanics, and the causes of numerous disorders that are linked to the functions of these regions. Most Physiology courses also focus on endocrine mechanisms, since these actions largely affect the function of the rest of the body. Physiology content can vary from the large-scale functions of the body (e.g. walking mechanics) to the molecular functions (e.g. linkage of T-tubule and sarcoplasmic reticulum channels). It is impossible to cover all physiological mechanisms in a single course, but even introductory Physiology courses address numerous mechanisms that affect different levels of function.

Testing and exams in Anatomy and Physiology can include both written exams and laboratory practicals. For written exams, questions are often linked to labeling anatomical diagrams, though exam format can vary greatly by course. Many courses will teach the symptoms or signs of diseases, disorders, or injuries associated with class topics. Be prepared to provide diagnoses of hypothetical conditions or scenarios that may be offered on exams. Laboratory practicals are based on physical models, often dissected organisms. Questions in the practical are often linked to Anatomy, but can also easily cover the function of a pinned organ or the relationship it shares with other structures in the body.

You can bolster your Human Anatomy and Physiology knowledge by taking Varsity Tutors free Human Anatomy and Physiology Practice Tests. Each Practice Test consists of ten to twelve Human Anatomy and Physiology questions; you can think of each one as being a little quiz you can use to hone your skills. Each question includes a detailed explanation, so if you miss one, you can figure out where you went wrong. Upon completing a Practice Test, you also receive detailed statistics that allow you to see how well you did in comparison to other test-takers, as well as how long you took to answer each problem. By utilizing Varsity Tutors free Human Anatomy and Physiology resources, you can study effectively and master Human Anatomy and Physiology with ease!

Our completely free Human Anatomy and Physiology practice tests are the perfect way to brush up your skills. Take one of our many Human Anatomy and Physiology practice tests for a run-through of commonly asked questions. You will receive incredibly detailed scoring results at the end of your Human Anatomy and Physiology practice test to help you identify your strengths and weaknesses. Pick one of our Human Anatomy and Physiology practice tests now and begin!

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Human Anatomy and Physiology Practice Tests

Anatomy

Asana Anatomy of Work: Remote Teams Survey Reveals Two-Thirds of Global Employees Embracing Collaboration Tools – Financial Post

One in five employees using these technologies for the first time as companies navigate new ways to stay organized and connected

SAN FRANCISCO Asana, a leading work management platform for teams, today released findings from the Anatomy of Work: Remote Teams survey delivering insights into how global employees have adapted to new remote work protocols.

The Anatomy of Work: Remote Teams evaluates the behaviors and attitudes of 5,140 full-time employees currently working from home in Australia, Germany, Japan, the U.K., and the U.S. Conducted by Censuswide from April 6 through April 15, 2020, the findings underscore the impacts of remote work for employees, from the tools they use to their shifting schedules.

Anatomy of Work: Remote Teams Key Findings

Organizations around the world are adapting to new ways of working together while being physically apart. Many teams are navigating the unique challenges related to the rapid move to remote work protocols, in some cases for the first time, said Dustin Moskovitz, CEO of Asana. Teams need confidence and clarity in their work, and platforms that foster collaboration are essential ways teams are staying aligned, organized and connected so they can continue working towards their most important goals. It goes without saying that this shared experience will serve as a catalyst to bring teams closer together.

Additional findings highlight the geographical differences in the current global environment:

To learn more about how Asana helps teams stay organized and connected while working remotely, including webinars, practical tips and advice, and community conversations on how to set teams up for success, visit asana.com.

Report Methodology The Anatomy of Work: Remote Teams was conducted on behalf of Asana by Censuswide. The survey of 5,140 knowledge workers from Australia, Germany, Japan, the U.K., and the U.S. was conducted from April 6 15, 2020 to assess the changes in working behaviors and attitudes of full-time, remote workers. In this study, collaboration tools are defined by work management platforms, messaging apps, and video conferencing.

About Asana Asana helps teams orchestrate their work, from small projects to strategic initiatives. Headquartered in San Francisco, CA, Asana has more than 75,000 paying organizations and millions of free organizations across 195 countries. Global customers such as AllBirds, Comcast, CyberAgent, Far East Organization, Sephora, Sky, Spotify, Viessmann and Woolworths rely on Asana to manage everything from company objectives to digital transformation to product launches and marketing campaigns.

View source version on businesswire.com: https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20200429005132/en/

Contacts

Asana Communications Erin Cheng erincheng@asana.com

#distro

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Asana Anatomy of Work: Remote Teams Survey Reveals Two-Thirds of Global Employees Embracing Collaboration Tools - Financial Post

Anatomy

‘Grey’s Anatomy’ star celebrates 1st wedding anniversary – ABC News

April 29, 2020, 2:13 PM

6 min read

6 min read

"Grey's Anatomy" actor Giacomo Gianniotti celebrated his first wedding anniversary with his wife Nichole Gianniotti on Tuesday.

To mark the special day, the actor, who plays Dr. Andrew DeLuca on the hit medical drama, shared a throwback from their wedding in Rome.

"Our marriage has had its first trip around the sun! Cant believe its already been a year," he wrote in a post.

"Happy Anniversary amore mio! Still lovin, laughin and dancing in kitchens," Gianniotti continued, adding marriage is the, "best decision I ever made."

He also shared some advice for his fans: "Marry your best friend."

Nichole Gianniotti, a professional makeup and hair artist, remembered the day in a series of social posts as well. She shared one shot with her husband dancing in Rome's famous Piazza Navona.

"Everyday with you just gets sweeter," she wrote in a message to her husband. "You are my everything and beyond."

Check out more images from their wedding in Italy below:

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'Grey's Anatomy' star celebrates 1st wedding anniversary - ABC News

Anatomy

The best of OSN: Why you need to watch Greys Anatomy – Time Out Abu Dhabi

If youre looking for a new season to delve into and immerse yourself in then you shouldnt look much further than the Golden Globe-winning series Greys Anatomy.

The medical drama has been a huge hit since debuting on screen back in 2005 and has received huge critical acclaim and dozens of award nominations.

Want to check in with some of TVs most popular doctors? Well, OSN is the only place where you can watch all 16 seasons of the American drama series here in the UAE and MENA.

Thats right, the latest season which premiered in late 2019 is only available on OSN and the good news is its streaming now.

For those who arent already hooked on the show, the series follows Meridith Grey, an aspiring surgeon and her colleagues at Seattle Grace Hospital.

You can expect to be fully engrossed in this medical drama, enjoy all the twists and turns and deep connection with the diverse and engaging cast.

While settling in for a show stopping programme youll want to sink your teeth into something equally and enjoyable. So, why not give making some dim sum dumplings a go at home?

These tasty parcels not only taste amazing and look great too, theyre packed with a wow factor that will impress the whole family as you settle in for an episode (or two).

To find out how to make the mini morsels and the ingredients that youll need, click here.

For plenty more binge-worthy shows and movies ranging from sci-fi classics to family-friendly blockbusters, OSN has you covered. Get streaming by heading to http://www.stream.osn.com.

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The best of OSN: Why you need to watch Greys Anatomy - Time Out Abu Dhabi

Anatomy

Netflix will gain new seasons of ‘Dead To Me,’ ‘Grey’s Anatomy’ in May; ‘Dear John,’ ‘Austin Powers’ will depart – The Post

The quarantine rages on, but Netflix is bringing several gems to the streaming service during the month of May. Some Adam Sandler greats like Just Go With It and Uncut Gems will hit Netflix in May as well as new seasons of Dead To Me, Dynasty, Greys Anatomy and Riverdale. Theres truly too much great content to mention, so heres a complete list of everything coming to Netflix in May:

Ace Ventura: Pet Detective

All Day and a Night (Netflix Original)

Almost Happy (Netflix Original)

Back to the Future

Back to the Future Part II

Charlie and the Chocolate Factory

Cracked Up, The Darrell Hammond Story

The Curious Case of Benjamin Button

Den of Thieves

For Colored Girls

Fun With Dick & Jane

Get In (Netflix Original)

Go! Go! Cory Carson: The Chrissy (Netflix Original)

The Heartbreak Kid

The Half of It (Netflix Original)

Hollywood (Netflix Original)

I Am Divine

Into the Night (Netflix Original)

Jarhead

Jarhead 2: Field of Fire

Jarhead 3: The Siege

Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa

Masha and the Bear (Season 4)

Material

Medici: The Magnificent (Part 2) (Netflix Original)

Monthly Girls' Nozaki Kun (Season 1)

Mrs. Serial Killer (Netflix Original)

The Patriot

Sinister

Song of the Sea

Thomas & Friends: Marvelous Machinery: A New Arrival

Thomas & Friends: Marvelous Machinery: World of Tomorrow

Thomas & Friends: Thomas and the Royal Engine

Underworld

Underworld: Evolution

Underworld: Rise of the Lycans

Urban Cowboy

What a Girl Wants

Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory

Available May 4

Arctic Dogs

Available May 5

Jerry Seinfeld: 23 Hours to Kill

Available May 6

Becoming (Netflix Original)

Workin' Moms (Season 4) (Netflix Original)

Available May 7

Scissor Seven (Season 2) (Netflix Original)

Available May 8

Chico Bon Bon: Monkey With a Tool Belt (Netflix Original)

Dead to Me (Season 2) (Netflix Original)

The Eddy (Netflix Original)

18 regali

The Hollow (Season 2) (Netflix Original)

House at the End of the Street (Netflix Original)

Restaurants on the Edge (Season 2)

Rust Valley Restorers (Season 2) (Netflix Original)

Valeria (Netflix Original)

Available May 9

Charmed (Season 2)

Grey's Anatomy (Season 16)

Available May 11

Bordertown (Season 3) (Netflix Original)

Have a Good Trip: Adventures in Psychedelics (Netflix Original)

Trial by Media (Netflix Original)

Available May 12

True: Terrific Tales (Netflix Original)

Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt: Kimmy vs. the Reverend (Netflix Original)

Available May 13

The Wrong Missy (Netflix Original)

Available May 14

Riverdale (Season 4)

Available May 15

Chichipatos (Netflix Original)

District 9

I Love You, Stupid (Netflix Original)

Inhuman Resources

Magic for Humans (Season 3) (Netflix Original)

She-Ra and the Princesses of Power (Season 5) (Netflix Original)

White Lines (Netflix Original)

Available May 16

La reina de Indias y el conquistador (Netflix Original)

Public Enemies

United 93

Available May 17

Soul Surfer

Available May 18

The Big Flower Fight (Netflix Original)

Available May 19

Patton Oswalt: I Love Everything (Netflix Original)

Sweet Magnolias (Netflix Original)

Trumbo

Available May 20

Ben Platt Live From Radio City Music Hall (Netflix Original)

The Flash (Season 6)

Rebelin de los Godnez (Netflix Original)

Available May 22

Control Z (Netflix Original)

History 101 (Netflix Original)

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Netflix will gain new seasons of 'Dead To Me,' 'Grey's Anatomy' in May; 'Dear John,' 'Austin Powers' will depart - The Post

Anatomy

Heres Why Sandra Oh Doesnt Regret Leaving Greys Anatomy – TheThings

Sandra Oh won her first Golden Globe in her role as Dr. Cristina Yang onGrey's Anatomy. Although she enjoyed her time on the series, Oh always knew that she was more than a co-star. Nonetheless, the actress had to pay her dues in supporting roles for thirty years before landing the lead on the BBCdramaKilling Eve. Now that she is finally center stage,Sandra Ohis making TV history.

Sandra Oh was actually an accomplished actress in Canada before she got her big break in the States. She revealed to E Newsthat she was the black sheep of her traditional Korean family. Hersiblings were overachievers; her sister Gracebecame a lawyer, and her brother Rayearned a PhD in medical genetics. Even though she is oriented towards the arts, Oh certainlybuilta resume that could easily inspire sibling rivalry.

Related:18 Surprising Facts About Grey's Anatomy Star, Sandra Oh

Sandra Oh began acting as a teenager in the suburbs of Ottawa. She landed her first TV gig in Canada in 1989, and by 1994 she had wonthe Genie (Canada's highestfilm award) forDouble Happiness in which she played the lead. The following year she won a Gemini (Canada's highest television award) for the TV movieThe Diary of Evelyn Lau. And four years later in 1999, she won her second Genie forLast Night.After she rose to the top of the entertainment industry in Canada,Sandra Oh decided to take on Hollywood.

Related:10 Grey's Anatomy Characters Who Should've Left Years Ago

Although Sandra Oh's success in Canada came quickly, she had many prejudices to overcome in America. Oh was told by a Hollywood agent that she wasn't star material, and that she should consider plastic surgery. Sandra Oh was hurt by the discriminatory comments, but she knew her talent was real. She reflected, "I had already done all I could do to get to that A level, which is star in theater, TV, film, and somehow, that wasn't enough for someone to say, 'I believe I can get you an audition.' " Sandra Oh paid her dues in Canada, so she wasn't about to let a pessimistic American agent get in her way.

A year after her arrival in L.A., Sandra Oh finally landed a role on HBO. But it still wasn't until 2005 that Oh began playing Dr. Cristina Yang on Grey's Anatomy. Even though her ascent toprime-time television was painstakingly slow, it only took one season for the Oh to win the Golden Globe for Best Actress in a Supporting Role. This win was also historic. According to Vox, it had been 39 years since an Asian actress took home an award in that category. Thus, ten years after her negative encounter in Hollywood, Sandra Oh finally received recognition for her hard work.

Related:10 Most Replaceable Grey's Anatomy Characters (5 We'd Get Rid Of In A Heartbeat)

Eversince her adolescence in Canada, Oh knew shepossessed the talent toplay a leading role. Sandra Oh loved her time on Grey's, and it was difficult to say goodbye.But after ten seasons in a supporting role, she was determined to fulfill her potential. The actress had a very specific goal:"I only want to play roles that are central to the story." So once again, Oh had to wait. This time it was for four years.

WhenSandra Oh sat down to read for Killing Eve in 2018, she did not even ask about the title role, she assumed she was reading for a supporting character. Her agent had to whisper to her that she was reading for the lead. When she reflected onthe process Its like, Oh, its so easy! They just called you!...In a way, yes, thats true. But in another way, it took 30 years to get this call.Like many minorities in America, Sandra Oh worked twice as hard, and received half the recognition. When her moment finally came, she could hardly believe it.

Sandra Oh recently posted a photo on Instragram of her parents proudly posing in front of aKilling Eve billboard. Her caption reads, "Proud #immigrantparents Just took me 30 yrs." It may have taken 30 years for the world to recognize her talent, but the truth is that Sandra Oh deserved recognition a long time ago. When shesecured a second Golden Globefor her performance inKilling Eve,Sandra Oh became the first Asian actress to winmore than one Golden Globe Award. And last year Sandra Oh made Golden Globe history for the third time, becoming the first Asian person to host the award show.

Now that she is finally starring as a title character, Sandra Oh haszero regrets about ending herten-yearcareer onGrey's Anatomy.The actressknew she would have been stuck in a supporting role if she was not willing to take a leap of faith. Now Sandra Oh has both recognition, and a unique place in television history.

Next:Here's How Phoebe Waller-Bridge Impacted The Popularity Of 'Killing Eve'

911 Call Released In The Ongoing Heard-Depp Drama

An educator and writer from Nashville, TN, Courtney writes about all things music, movies and TV. However she doesn't shy away from the heavy topics either, she has published articles on feminism and philosophy.

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Heres Why Sandra Oh Doesnt Regret Leaving Greys Anatomy - TheThings

Cell Biology

Exosomes: Definition, Function and Use in Therapy – Technology Networks

What are exosomes?

Exosomes are a class of cell-derived extracellular vesicles of endosomal origin, and are typically 30-150 nm in diameter the smallest type of extracellular vesicle.1 Enveloped by a lipid bilayer, exosomes are released into the extracellular environment containing a complex cargo of contents derived from the original cell, including proteins, lipids, mRNA, miRNA and DNA.2 Exosomes are defined by how they are formed through the fusion and exocytosis of multivesicular bodies into the extracellular space.

Multivesicular bodies* are unique organelles in the endocytic pathway that function as intermediates between early and late endosomes.3 The main function of multivesicular bodies is to separate components that will be recycled elsewhere from those that will be degraded by lysosomes.4 The vesicles that accumulate within multivesicular bodies are categorized as intraluminal vesicles while inside the cytoplasm and exosomes when released from the cell.

*Confusingly, there is inconsistency in the literature; while some sources differentiate multivesicular bodies from late endosomes, others use the two interchangeably.

Exosomes are of general interest for their role in cell biology, and for their potential therapeutic and diagnostic applications. It was originally thought that exosomes were simply cellular waste products, however their function is now known to extend beyond waste removal. Exosomes represent a novel mode of cell communication and contribute to a spectrum of biological processes in health and disease.2One of the main mechanisms by which exosomes are thought to exert their effects is via the transfer of exosome-associated RNA to recipient cells, where they influence protein machinery. There is growing evidence to support this, such as the identification of intact and functional exosomal RNA in recipient cells and certain RNA-binding proteins have been identified as likely players in the transfer of RNA to target cells.5,6 MicroRNAs and long noncoding RNAs are shuttled by exosomes and alter gene expression while proteins (e.g. heat shock proteins, cytoskeletal proteins, adhesion molecules, membrane transporter and fusion proteins) can directly affect target cells.7,8Exosomes have been described as messengers of both health and disease. While they are essential for normal physiological conditions, they also act to potentiate cellular stress and damage under disease states.2

Multivesicular bodies are a specialized subset of endosomes that contain membrane-bound intraluminal vesicles. Intraluminal vesicles are essentially the precursors of exosomes, and form by budding into the lumen of the multivesicular body. Most intraluminal vesicles fuse with lysosomes for subsequent degradation, while others are released into the extracellular space.9,10 The intraluminal vesicles that are secreted into the extracellular space become exosomes. This release occurs when the multivesicular body fuses with the plasma membrane.

The formation and degradation of exosomes.

This is an active area of research and it is not yet known how exosome release is regulated. However, recent advances in imaging protocols may allow exosome release events to be visualized at high spatiotemporal resolution.11

Exosomes have been implicated in a diverse range of conditions including neurodegenerative diseases, cancer, liver disease and heart failure. Like other microvesicles, the function of exosomes likely depends on the cargo they carry, which is dependent on the cell type in which they were produced.12 Researchers have studied exosomes in disease through a range of approaches, including:

In cancer, exosomes have multiple roles in metastatic spread, drug resistance and angiogenesis. Specifically, exosomes can alter the extracellular matrix to create space for migrating tumor cells.13,14 Several studies also indicate that exosomes can increase the migration, invasion and secretion of cancer cells by influencing genes involved with tumor suppression and extracellular matrix degradation.15,16Through general cell crosstalk, exosomal miRNA and lncRNA affect the progression of lung diseases including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, tuberculosis and interstitial lung diseases. Stressors such as oxidant exposure can influence the secretion and cargo of exosomes, which in turn affect inflammatory reactions.17 Altered exosomal profiles in diseased states also imply a role for exosomes in many other conditions such as in neurodegenerative diseases and mental disorders.18,19Cells exposed to bacteria release exosomes which act like decoys to toxins, suggesting a protective effect during infection.20 In neuronal circuit development, and in many other systems, exosomal signaling is likely to be a sum of overlapping and sometimes opposing signaling networks.21

Exosomes can function as potential biomarkers, as their contents are molecular signatures of their originating cells. Due to the lipid bilayer, exosomal contents are relatively stable and protected against external proteases and other enzymes, making them attractive diagnostic tools. There are increasing reports that profiles of exosomal miRNA and lncRNA differ in patients with certain pathologies, compared with those of healthy people.17 Consequently, exosome-based diagnostic tests are being pursued for the early detection of cancer, diabetes and other diseases.22,23Many exosomal proteins, nucleic acids and lipids are being explored as potential clinically relevant biomarkers.24 Phosphorylation proteins are promising biomarkers that can be separated from exosomal samples even after five years in the freezer25, while exosomal microRNA also appears to be highly stable.26 Exosomes are also highly accessible as they are present in a wide array of biofluids (including blood, urine, saliva, tears, ascites, semen, colostrum, breast milk, amniotic fluid and cerebrospinal fluid), creating many opportunities for liquid biopsies.

Exosomes are being pursued for use in an array of potential therapeutic applications. While externally modified vesicles suffer from toxicity and rapid clearance, membranes of naturally occurring vesicles are better tolerated, offering low immunogenicity and a high resilience in extracellular fluid.27 These naturally-equipped nanovesicles could be therapeutically targeted or engineered as drug delivery systems.

Exosomes bear surface molecules that allow them to be targeted to recipient cells, where they deliver their payload. This could be used to target them to diseased tissues or organs.27 Exosomes may cross the blood-brain barrier, at least under certain conditions28 and could be used to deliver an array of therapies including small molecules, RNA therapies, proteins, viral gene therapy and CRISPR gene-editing.

Different approaches to creating drug-loaded exosomes include27:

Exosomes hold huge potential as a way to complement chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR-T) cells in attacking cancer cells. CAR exosomes, which are released from CAR-T cells, carry CAR on their surface and express a high level of cytotoxic molecules and inhibit tumor growth.29 Cancer cell-derived exosomes carrying associated antigens have also been shown to recruit an antitumor immune response.30

The purification of exosomes is a key challenge in the development of translational tools. Exosomes must be differentiated from other distinct populations of extracellular vesicles, such as microvesicles (which shed from the plasma membrane, also referred to as ectosomes or shedding vesicles) and apoptotic bodies.31 Although ultracentrifugation is regarded as the gold standard for exosome isolation, it has many disadvantages and alternative methods for exosome isolation are currently being sought. Exosome isolation is an active area of research (see Table 1) and many research groups are seeking ways to overcome the disadvantages listed below, while navigating the relevant regulatory hurdles along the way.

Produces a low yield and low purity of the isolated exosomes as other types of extracellular vesicles have similar sedimentation properties.

Low efficiency as it is labor-intensive, time-consuming and requires a large amount of sample. specialized equipment. High centrifugal force can damage exosome integrity

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Exosomes: Definition, Function and Use in Therapy - Technology Networks

Cell Biology

A day in the COVID-19 life of a working mom and USC biology lab manager – USC News

Morning dawns on Gorjana Bezmalinovic with a nuzzle and smooch from Rey, her German shepherd. Since mid-March, life for USCs lab manager of undergraduate biology classes has been a case study in extreme multitasking. Since she began working at home, shes had to help homeschool her two children, support her husband during hard times and shift all 800 of her students to online learning.

Bezmalinovics daughter, Lara, shows off the molted lobster exoskeleton she found while exploring. (Photo/Courtesy of Gorjana Bezmalinovic)

I had peace and quiet when I was at work, but I dont now, Bezmalinovic said. Working at home means working more than ever.

Out of bed and into the kitchen, she makes coffee and scans emails because students love to send emails in the middle of the night. Her daughter Lara, 8, gets up first, followed by her son, Niko, 15. Then its time to make breakfast. Next, the 47-year-old mom helps Lara get started on her homework before returning to her USC responsibilities.

On a good day, its not easy managing two introductory biology classes, one honors class, 20 teaching assistants, seven professors and 800 students. But life for Bezmalinovic, who coordinates the needs of this sprawling enterprise, changed dramatically when classes moved online last month.

Many of the students are pre-med, pre-veterinary or pre-dental. They study evolution, ecology, cell biology and physiology. The courses are not easy-peasy. Kids who come from small towns are shocked at the size of the classes, she said.

Her biggest challenge was figuring out how to teach dissection online. Students were disappointed that they might miss disassembling a frog or lamb heart or testing blood types rites of passage in undergraduate biology. Bezmalinovic scrambled for solutions.

Working with her assistants, she cobbled together online instructional videos that helped students complete the exercises from the lab manual, YouTube dissection videos and an online blood transfusion video game. Her lab instructors recorded their Zoom lectures, and voil, she had a virtual lab.

Lunchtime at home means preparing a meal for the kids, then sending them outside to walk the dog so I gain 30 minutes of peace and quiet, she said. The rest of the afternoon, she works with her teaching assistants. The living room is her office. Her family uses the other rooms for school and business.

Bezmalinovic came to USC in 2006 as a lecturer after completing her graduate degree at California State University, Long Beach. Prior, she lived in Croatia and attended college there. She loved science and jumped at the opportunity to manage USCs biology courses.

Most of all, she enjoys working with the students. She remembers their names; they call her Mrs. B. Shes their advisor, lecturer, administrator and counselor, available at all times of the day.

Then comes dinner time and Mrs. B is mom again, feeding a hungry family. She helps her kids with their studies then spends time with her husband.

The family dog, Rey, accompanies Bezmalinovic during a break from work. (Photo/Courtesy of Gorjana Bezmalinovic)

He says, I thought now that youre working from home wed have more time, but its crazier than usual. He wants to talk at 8 or 9 p.m., but I cant because theres always something to do. If I leave a task for tomorrow, Ill have much more to do the next day, Bezmalinovic said.

At the end of the semester, shes working on a lab exam and student presentations. Then come the final exams and grading, followed by planning for online summer classes. In a normal year, her family would vacation with relatives in Croatia, but COVID-19 wiped out that summer trip.

If theres consolation, its the fact she doesnt have to commute to work or worry about picking up her daughter from school.

Im more relieved that I dont have to be stuck in traffic, but theres too little time in the day to do everything, she said. But you know, I love helping the students. They like me, and Im always in a good mood with them. I love my job. I wouldnt have it any other way.

At days end, she walks Rey around the neighborhood, unplugged with no phone. Its 40 minutes of quiet comfort with the dog that will be there in the morning to get her started all over again.

Karla Reid contributed to this story.

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A day in the COVID-19 life of a working mom and USC biology lab manager - USC News