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Expanding Alzheimer’s research with primates could overcome the problem with treatments that show promise in mice but don’t help humans – The…

September 1, 2022 medical

As of 2022, an estimated 6.5 million Americans have Alzheimers disease, an illness that robs people of their memories, independence and personality, causing suffering to both patients and their families. That number may double by 2060. The U.S. has made considerable investments in Alzheimers research, having allocated US$3.5 billion in federal funding this year.

Why, then, are researchers no closer to a cure today than they were 30 years ago?

Back in 1995, researchers created the first transgenic mouse model of Alzheimers disease, which involved genetically modifying mice to carry a gene associated with early-onset Alzheimers. Myriad studies have since focused on mouse models that accumulate abnormal proteins in their brains, a hallmark of the disease. Although these studies made great strides in understanding specific mechanisms involved in the disease, they have failed to translate into effective treatments.

As research scientists working with nonhuman primates, we believe that part of the problem is that mice dont reflect the full spectrum of Alzheimers disease. A more complementary animal model, however, could help researchers better translate the results from animal studies to humans.

A critical aspect of understanding what goes awry in Alzheimers disease is the relationship between brain and behavior. Researchers rely heavily on animal models to do these types of studies because ethical and practical issues make them impossible to conduct in people.

In recent years, researchers have developed alternative methods to study Alzheimers, such as computer models and cell cultures. Although these options show promise for advancing Alzheimers research, they dont supersede the need for animal models because of important limitations.

One is their inability to replicate the complexity of the human brain. The human brain has an estimated 86 billion neurons that perform highly complex computations. While computer models can simulate the workings of specific neural circuits, they are unable to fully capture these complex interactions and work best when used in concert with animal models.

Similarly, cell cultures and brain organoids miniature brains derived from human stem cells are unable to adequately mimic the aging process and all the ways the components of the human body interact with one another.

As a result of these limitations, researchers turn to animal models that better reflect human biology and disease processes.

According to the National Association for Biomedical Research, approximately 95% of lab research conducted in animals in the U.S. is done in mice and rats. Alzheimers is no exception: For more than 25 years, research on Alzheimers has focused on using transgenic mice to better understand the biological changes associated with the disease.

Because mice do not naturally get Alzheimers, they are genetically engineered to develop abnormal proteins known as amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tau tangles to mimic Alzheimers in their brains. These protein accumulations impair brain function and are associated with memory impairment. While studies on treatments that remove these proteins have been able to improve cognition in mice, similar interventions have failed in people.

This highlights the challenge of translating animal research in the lab to people in the clinic. Mouse studies often mirror only a single aspect of the disease that may not be directly relevant to people. For example, most transgenic mouse models focus on amyloid protein buildup while neglecting other crucial aspects of the disease, such as overall neurodegeneration. Such limitations have led some scientists to question the value of using mouse models for Alzheimers research.

It is important to recognize, however, that scientific knowledge often advances in incremental steps through the collective results of many studies using different methods and models. Rodent studies provide the necessary foundation for animal models that better mimic the full scope of Alzheimers such as nonhuman primates.

The specific features of a species including brain structure, cognitive ability, life span and the extent to which they show the hallmarks of Alzheimers determine how suitable it is for specific research questions. Based on these factors, we believe that nonhuman primates are particularly well suited for Alzheimers research.

Primates are a diverse group of mammals that includes humans, apes, monkeys and prosimians. Nonhuman primates are particularly valuable for understanding human aging and Alzheimers disease because their genetic makeup, brain, behavior, physiology and aging process closely resemble those of people. Aging monkeys experience cognitive, physical and sensory decline as well as a variety of illnesses, such as cancer and cardiovascular disease, much like aging people. Perhaps most critical for Alzheimers research, nonhuman primates live much longer than rodents and can naturally develop some of the hallmarks associated with Alzheimers as they get older.

Using nonhuman primates in research faces some challenges. Compared to mice, nonhuman primates are more expensive to house and feed, and face a growing shortage in research facilities. Nonhuman primates are also prime targets for activists seeking to stop the use of animals in research. Yet, in light of ongoing failures with rodent models, nonhuman primates could significantly help scientists better understand and treat Alzheimers.

Scientists study Alzheimers in nonhuman primates in a number of ways.

In one approach, researchers examine species with short life spans, such as gray mouse lemurs or common marmosets, to measure how brain and behavior naturally change with age and identify potential predictors of disease. Other researchers may instead accelerate the disease process by inducing plaque or tangle formation in the brains of longer-lived species, like rhesus macaques. These approaches yield studies that are particularly promising for testing treatments in a short time frame.

A third approach takes advantage of recent advances in genomics to study marmosets born with genetic mutations involved in Alzheimers. This method provides the opportunity to test preventive treatments during early life, well before any sign of the disease appears.

Lastly, comparing Alzheimer-like patterns across primate species may help reveal critical risk factors for developing the disease, which could be reduced to promote healthy aging.

We believe that research in nonhuman primates, when conducted with the highest ethical standards, provides the best chance to understand how and why Alzheimers disease progresses, and to design treatments that are safe and effective in people.

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Expanding Alzheimer's research with primates could overcome the problem with treatments that show promise in mice but don't help humans - The...

Human Behavior

Sadrick Widmann, cidaas: there is a broad range of cybersecurity measures a company should implement nowadays – CyberNews.com

September 1, 2022 medical

A set of tools for managing roles and access privileges of individual network entities to various cloud and on-premise applications is called Identity and Access Management (IAM).

The primary purpose of IAM is a single digital identity for everyone and everything. Once that is established, it must be observed and modified throughout the access cycle of each user or device.

We sat down with Sadrick Widmann, a cloud IMA-focused company cidaas CEO, to discuss the most pressing issues of this side of the field.

How did cidaas originate? What would you consider the biggest milestones throughout the years?

The idea for cidaas developed out of a customer project of WidasConcepts. At that time, a well-known German medical technology company was looking for a solution for its customer identity and access management that would allow not only the administration of identities but also their authentication and authorization on a central platform.After evaluating several software solutions, we came to the conclusion that no vendor mapped all the requirements "out-of-the-box" and that major development efforts would be necessary to configure the solution as desired. The result is cidaas Europes #1 Cloud Identity & Access Management.

Can you introduce us to your identity platform? What are its key features?

Cidaas is the leading European Cloud Identity & Access Management and delivers an out-of-the-box solution with which companies can establish a unified identity across all channels and the highest security. Cidaas is characterized in particular by feature completeness. Starting with the extensive authentication options for login or multi-factor authentication to our group management with which B2B use cases or family and friend scenarios can be easily implemented as well as our advanced consent management. But also, innovative functions like the Real World Identification with which the digital and the real-world identity of users can be linked.

For example, the access to stadiums or events can be managed, or the cidaas ID validator with which a digital identity verification can be performed via an AutoIdent, for example for the opening of a bank account or for the digital driver's license check, round off the platform.

One important characteristic of the cidaas platform, which our customers often highlight, is the Everything is an API approach and the event-based architecture of cidaas. The Everything is an API allows one to access all features of cidaas via API and the event-based architecture allows reacting in real-time to any event happening in the cidaas platform. Both features allow a perfect integration of cidaas into any software landscape or application.

What are the most common methods threat actors use to bypass various identity verification measures?

There are many different attack vectors in the context of authentication, but since the password is still the predominant authentication method, most attacks continue to be password-centric and follow classic attack patterns.

Therefore, brute force attacks are still one of the most common methods, in particular, brute force attacks with credential stuffing or credential cracking demonstrate high success rates. In these attack patterns, attackers utilize existing compromised credentials and variations of these to authenticate at different services and platforms. The biggest collection of leaked credentials haveibeenpwnd contains nearly 12 billion credentials.

Additionally, also classical Phishing attacks are still common and still show a much too high success rate.

The advantage of these attack patterns is the broad range of victims that can be reached as well as the ease of implementation, reducing the barriers of the attack, combined with a good success rate, it is perfect for any attacker.

The best way to overcome these attack patterns is to move to passwordless and multi-factor authentication to eliminate the password as an attack vector.

How do you think the recent global events affected the cybersecurity landscape?

The recent events had a huge impact on the cybersecurity landscape. Starting the Covid-19 pandemic has greatly changed the way we work. Remote work and distributed work are part of everyday life, which also meant that classic cybersecurity concepts had to change. Users are no longer located in the secure corporate network protected by firewalls, but all over the world. But it is not only the world of work that has changed; the pandemic has also had an impact on private life, giving digitization a further boost, at least in part.

Also, the recent development in Ukraine affects the cybersecurity landscape massively, especially since state players and also hacker collectives are getting in on the action. In addition to the actual threat situation, which has increased, the perceived threat situation is also decisive and shapes the cybersecurity landscape.

My hope is that recent global events will have a positive effect on cybersecurity and lead to increased investment in cybersecurity by companies and nations.

What are the main issues associated with password-based authentication?

We already discussed password-centric attack patterns, but the main issue with password-based authentication is the human. The human factor combines different human behavioral patterns which undermine the password. That starts with the reuse of passwords, users tend to use the same or a variation of the same password test123 and test1234, which makes it easy for the attacker to guess the password in a brute force attack.

Moreover, the users do not select random passwords but subconsciously use certain patterns to assign passwords. These patterns can be modeled by attackers to reduce the number of possible passwords (solution space). Basically, attackers do not need to test random passwords during an attack, based on leaked credentials and models which map the patterns of password selection, the solution space an attacker needs to test during an attack shrinks massively.

Besides quality identity management solutions, what other cybersecurity measures do you think every company should implement nowadays?

There is a broad range of cybersecurity measures a company should implement nowadays. Important are all measures known to secure the networks and internal infrastructure: firewalls, protection against malware, monitoring of software and hardware systems, antivirus software

Important is also to keep software and hardware up-to-date, sadly this is quite often not the case in many companies, and in particular outdated software is in place. Finally, security awareness within the company is an essential building block of cybersecurity.

As for personal use, what security measures can average individuals take to prevent their identity from being stolen?

As an individual, you can take different measures to reduce the risk of identity theft. Obviously, caution and thoughtful behavior are important. Additionally, individuals should move to passwordless authentication options if available, more and more digital services offer such options like many of our customers do.

Users should also start using multi-factor authentication, in particular for important services and sensitive data. But it is not only the individual who should take action, also companies and providers need to do their job and integrate identity & access management as well as other security solutions to protect their user data.

What do you think the future of identity and access management is going to be like? Do you think the use of biometrics is going to take off?

I am curious to see the future development of the Identity & Access Management market. There are some interesting trends, be it Zero-Trust, digital identity verification, or the connection between digital and real-world identity.

I am also quite sure the use of biometrics will take off, it is one of the most comfortable options for users, and most of the users are already used to it, due to the device biometrics like FaceID or TouchID on Smartphones. In particular, in the context of passwordless authentication, user comfort and therefore biometrics is important.

Would you like to share whats next for cidaas?

As a leading European Cloud Identity & Access Management, we have big plans for the future. We want to further strengthen our position in Europe and also expand into other markets. We also have some cool new features planned that will help our customers to implement Identity & Access Management perfectly.

We have already briefly touched on a few topics above, from zero trust to real-world identification (identifying users in the real world, e.g. at the point of sale or when accessing the stadium), which we will continue to drive forward with cidaas.

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Sadrick Widmann, cidaas: there is a broad range of cybersecurity measures a company should implement nowadays - CyberNews.com

Human Behavior

This Shark Can Walk on Land to Survive Its Extreme Habitat – Smithsonian Magazine

September 1, 2022 medical

An epaulette shark in the South Pacific Auscape / Universal Images Group via Getty Images

While sharks that walk on land may sound like the terrifying plot of a Sharknado movie, a recent study examined a species that truly can move out of water. But its hardly a nightmare-inducing skill: The small sharks can scoot about 90 feet across the land.

Theyre not sprinting. There are no ankle-biters coming to get anybody, biologist Forrest Galante, who was not involved with the new research, told the Associated Press in July. Its just this fascinating behavior taking place.

Called epaulette sharks, these docile creatures pose little risk to humansbut theyre still considered the toughest shark on the Great Barrier Reef, Jodie Rummer, a marine biologist at James Cook University in Australia and co-author of the paper, tells USA Todays Orlando Mayorquin. The species may provide scientists with valuable information about surviving in harsh environments.

In the research, published in Integrative and Comparative Biology in July, scientists studied the mechanics of how these sharks move, comparing their gait as newborns versus as juveniles.They assert that walking on land might be a survival strategy prompted not only by the sharks naturally severe habitat conditions, but also by climate change.

"Epaulette sharks live at the extremes," Marianne Porter, lead author of the study and a biologist at Florida Atlantic University, tells Live Sciences Joshua A. Krisch. "If we want to learn what happens to animals under the extreme conditions of climate change, looking at animals already living under these conditionsand understanding how they move and copemay be the first step."

Epaulette sharks (Hemiscyllium ocellatum) are about 3 feet long with paddle-shaped fins they use to walk, whether across the ocean floor or on dry land. They live in shallow watersamid coral reefs in the western Pacific Oceanaround New Guinea and northern Australia. These hardy sharks can survive oxygen deficiency for up to about two hours, which helps them persist in their challenging habitat.

You might not think of beautiful, tropical beaches as harsh, but in reality, tidepools and coral reef environments are pretty harsh, subjected to warm temperatures when the tide is out and a lot of changes, Porter tells The Guardians Richard Luscombe. These little sharks can move from tidepool to tidepool, allowing them to access new pools to forage for food, or tidepools with better oxygenated water.

In the study, scientists hypothesized that changes in thesharks body shapes as they grow would affect how they move, per a statement. Newborn epaulette sharks draw nutrients from an internal yolk sac until theyre about a month old, which causes their bellies to bulge. Juveniles, on the other hand, actively forage for worms, crustaceans and small fish, so theyre more slender, the authors write.

"Shape generally impacts the way we move," Porter tells Live Science. "Human babies walk differently to balance their giant heads, and we assumed that baby sharks would wiggle their bodies and move their fins differently to accommodate their giant bellies."

To test their hypothesis, the research team examined sharks during three gaits of the animals in water: slow-to-medium walking, fast-walking and swimming. Surprisingly, they found that markers such as overall velocity, fin rotation and tail beat frequency remained the same for newborns and juveniles.

Further researchincluding looking into how these sharks walk on landcould provide more information about why these movements dont change as the sharks age, per Live Science. And, per the paper, future studies could determine how climate change may have impacted these sharks' walking behavior.

Understanding how these animals do it and how theyre so successful could teach us a lot about what is needed to be able to survive in the future climatic conditions that were supposed to see, Porter tells USA Today.

Rayland Baxter Announces New Album If I Were A Butterfly, Shares Origins of Title Track: Exclusive – Yahoo Entertainment

September 1, 2022 medical

The post Rayland Baxter Announces New Album If I Were A Butterfly, Shares Origins of Title Track: Exclusive appeared first on Consequence.

Origins is a recurring new music series giving artists the opportunity to share exclusive insights into their latest release. Today, Rayland Baxter breaks down If I Were A Butterfly, the lead single and title track of his fourth album.

Nashville singer and songwriter Rayland Baxter has announced his fourth studio album and shared the title track, If I Were A Butterfly, on Tuesday (August 30th). The groovy, harmony-laden track is a fascinating foray into the sounds of If I Were A Butterfly,and its lush instrumentation compliments Baxters warm vocals and introspective lyrics perfectly.

According to Baxter, the new album centers its themes on the loss of his legendary father, Bucky Baxter, who was a member of Bob Dylans band and Steve Earls Dukes, and who appears on several ofIf I Were A Butterflys tracks. In addition to his late father, Baxter has enlisted some more heavy hitters for the album, including Lennon Stella (who provides backing vocals to If I Were A Butterfly), Shakey Graves, members of Cage The Elephant and Alabama Shakes, and more.

About the title track specifically, Baxter says that its just a song about growing up looking forward looking back about life and death birth and rebirth evolution and transformation of the mind, body, and spirit. These ideas may be macro, but Baxter makes sure to take these weighty concepts and infuse them with subtlety and intrigue across the five minute track. If I Were A Butterfly is certainly an emotional experience, but theres a dazzling lightness to the song that keeps you coming back for more.

Along with the track and album announcement, RayLand Baxter has shared the music video for If I Were A Butterfly, directed by Citizen Kane Wane. The singer/songwriter has also announced several US tour dates in support of If I Were A Butterfly; check out the tour dates below.

Story continues

Get an exclusive first look at the tracks music video, and read on for RayLand Baxters origins for If I Were A Butterfly.

If I Were a Butterly arrives on November 4th via ATO.

Butternut Squash Soup:

Rayland Baxter Origins Butternut Squash Soup

The origin of If I Were A Butterfly is simple I opened up the portal of space and time after eating some butternut squash and thyme soup.

Bucky:

I sat around a room surrounded by a spiritual web of silent stationary memories some friends came over to check on me from time to time they played a drum and a chord Bucky, Billy, and Tiger did the rest.

Cornfields:

I made this record amongst the cornfields of Kentucky. Theyre constant, everywhere you go, between Kentucky and Tennessee.

Evolution:

Nothing evolves faster than a butterfly.

Humanity:

Humanity RayLand Baxter Origins

In 1972, Jerome Kagan wrote that uncertainty resolution was one of the foremost determinants of human behavior. When we cant immediately gratify our desire to know, we become highly motivated to reach a concrete explanation. We want to eliminate the distress of the unknown a drive for certainty in the face of a less-than-certain world. This song is about living without that kind of closure.

Rayland Baxters 2022 Tour Dates:

11/4 Nashville, TN @ Grimeys In-Store11/5 Atlanta, GA @ Terminal West11/6 Charleston, SC @ The Windjammer11/11 Nashville, TN @ Brooklyn Bowl11/16 Brooklyn, NY @ Brooklyn Made11/18 Philadelphia, PA @ Ardmore Music Hall11/19 Washington D.C. @ The Hamilton

Rayland Baxter Announces New Album If I Were A Butterfly, Shares Origins of Title Track: ExclusivePaolo Ragusa

Embryology: Definition & Development Stages – Study.com

August 24, 2022 medical

Embryology: Background

Gametes are sex cells carrying genetic information in the form of chromosomes. Humans, for example, have 23 pairs of chromosomes, half of which are inherited from the mother and half are inherited from the father. Most of these chromosomes (22 pairs) are called autosomes. Autosomes carry the hereditary genetic information that produces our unique characteristics such as hair color, eye color, and height.

The last pair of chromosomes are the gonosomes. These are chromosomes that determine whether we become male or female. Two X chromosomes make an embryo genotypically female, while one X and one Y chromosome make an embryo genotypically male. Female gametes (the eggs), also called oocytes, carry only X gonosomes, but male gametes (sperm) can carry either an X or a Y gonosome. This means that the genotypic sex of the child is decided by the father.

There are three prenatal periods: the first two weeks are the pre-embryonic period, weeks three to eight are the embryonic period, and weeks nine to birth are the fetal period.

During the pre-embryonic period, there are several important phases of human embryology that lead up to and follow sex determination: fertilization, cleavage, gastrulation, and organogenesis fertilization occur when there's a successful union between two gametes. In our example, this occurs when Peg the Egg and Vern the Sperm unite to form a zygote, a fertilized egg. After successful fertilization, the zygote undergoes a rapid replication process called cleavage.

By the end of day two, a multicellular pre-embryo called a blastocyst is formed. The blastocyst begins to embed itself into the lining of the mother's uterus by the end of the first week through a process called implantation and is fully embedded in the uterine lining by the end of the second week. Upon successful implantation, Peg and Vern can collectively be called Romeo the Embryo.

Sperm need to surround the oocyte (Peg the Egg) until one sperm breaks through the egg's outer layer, contributing its DNA (aka Vern the Sperm).

At the time of ovulation, the oocyte enters the uterine (fallopian) tube where it is fertilized. The fertilized egg travels through the uterine tube, undergoing cleavage until it becomes a blastocyst and implants in the uterine lining.

The blastocyst embeds itself into the uterine lining. Once complete, cells begin to differentiate to form a bi-layer and then tri-layer embryonic disc. The tri-layer embryonic disc gives rise to the primary germ layers of the embryo. Germ layers are composed of cells that will undergo transformation to become the organs and structures of the developing embryo.

DNA from the sperm (23 chromosomes) and DNA from the oocyte (23 chromosomes) combine via meiosis, ensuring that the zygote contains precisely 46 chromosomes (23 pairs of chromosomes).

Next, Romeo the Embryo undergoes gastrulation, which is the formation of the primary germ layers. By the end of week two, a bi-layer embryonic disc forms, and then by the end of week three a tri-layer embryonic disc is formed. The tri-layer embryonic disc is comprised of ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm, which will become all the wonderful things that make Romeo unique.

Organogenesis, the development and differentiation of a fetus's organs, begins during week three and continues through week eight. Sex determination begins during organogenesis, but for the first six weeks Romeo is sexually indifferent.

How do we determine if Peg and Vern made a boy or a girl? We do a little genetic profiling and see that Romeo has both an X and a Y chromosome. That means Romeo is a boy, right? Not necessarily.

For Romeo to be both genotypically and phenotypically (outward expression of genes) male, there are a couple of things that must be present. First, the Y chromosome must have a gene called the Sex Determining Region Y, or Testis Determining Factor (TDF for short). The SRY gene produces a protein that activates the Androgen Receptor (AR for short) gene on the X chromosome. If the AR gene is present on the X chromosome and the SRY gene successfully triggers activation, the AR gene triggers the production of AR proteins.

What is androgen, by the way? It is a steroid-based hormone that is converted into testosterone in males and female sex hormones in females. Testosterone is attracted to AR proteins and testosterone is what makes men, men.

The sexually indifferent embryo has bipotential gonads, the primary sex organs that can become either ovaries or testes. What happens next is dependent upon the composition of and the interaction between the X and Y chromosomes. The urogenital sinus will become the bladder and associated urethra.

What does this all mean? It means that all the requirements necessary for Romeo to be male have been met. As you can see in this picture, Romeo is now on his way to becoming phenotypically male.

By week ten, Romeo's gonads are making testosterone, and by week twelve, the external genitalia begin to take the shape of a penis and scrotum. By the time Romeo is born, his internal and external reproductive organs are precisely where they should be for a newborn boy.

What would happen if Romeo's SRY gene did not properly activate the AR gene on the X chromosome? The default sex is female so Romeo would be genotypically male but phenotypically female. Biological sex is a complicated thing!

If the embryo is XX, the female duct system is selected. In the event any of the critical male genes and/or hormones are absent, the female duct system is selected.

Okay, that was quite a bit, so let's take a moment to review what we've learned. As we saw in this lesson, sex determination is just one facet of the complex process of embryonic development and largely the focus of embryology, which is the science that deals with the development and growth of an individual within the uterus. As we also learned, genetic sex is decided at the time of fertilization by our gonosomes, which are the chromosomes that determine whether we become male or female (either XX or XY, in other words).

However, genotypic sex is just part of what determines if we're male or female. Phenotypic sex is determined during organogenesis, which happens when there's a successful union between two gametes. It happens by either inhibiting the development of the female duct system through the synthesis of male sex hormones or by defaulting to the female duct system.

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Embryology: Definition & Development Stages - Study.com

Embryology

Embryology, Ear – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

August 24, 2022 medical

Introduction

The ear is an incredible organ of hearing and equilibrium divided into three anatomic parts: the external, middle, andinternal ear. The external ear, or outer ear, consists of the auricle or pinna, and the tubular external auditory canal ending at the tympanic cavity. The external ear resonates and amplifies sound,and it directs sound towards the tympanic membrane. The middle ear's tympanic membrane converts energy from sound waves into mechanical energy as vibrations.The middle ear is essentially an air-filled cavity that houses three auditory ossicles: the malleus, incus, and stapes. The ossicles transmit sound vibrations from the tympanic membrane to theinternal or inner ear. Theinternalear, or labyrinth of the ear, houses the organs of hearing and balance. The internal earis composed of thevestibule, semicircular canals, and cochlea.The vestibule functions tosense linear acceleration, while the semicircular canals sense rotational movements. The cochlea'sorgan of Corti functions totransduce auditory signals into neuronal impulses that reach the brain via the vestibulocochlear nerve.The delicate structures of the internal, middle, and external ear must function in concert to transmit sound and sense movement.

The development of the earrequires contributions from allthree germ layers and involves a sophisticated process with intricate embryologic patterning. Each anatomic divisionof the ear has a distinct origin and unique developmental processes resulting in their typical form.[1]While the development of the ear continuespost-birth, a fetus can functionally hear by about 26 weeks of development. Notably, several anatomic variants and congenital conditions can arise from deviationsin the typical developmental processes.[2]

InternalEar

The internal ear is derived from ectoderm, and it is the first of the three anatomic parts of the ear to form. Development begins as a pair ofshort-lived thickenings of the surface ectoderm, the otic placode or otic disc, appear dorsolateral to the hindbrainaround the fourth week of developmentthe otic placode forms due to the induction of surface ectoderm by the nearby notochord and paraxial mesoderm. The otic placode is one of the first sensory placodes involved in the formation of special sensory organs to develop.

The otic placode invaginates into the mesenchyme adjacent to the rhombencephalon to form an otic pit. Thesides ofthe otic pit fold together and fuse to form a hollow piriform structure lined with columnar epithelium, called the otic vesicle. Rapidly, the otic vesicle moves deep to the surface ectodermand is instead enveloped in mesenchyme to form the otic capsule. The statoacoustic, or vestibulocochlear, ganglionarises as neurons delaminate duringthe formation of the otic vesicleand, later,the ganglion splits into cochlear and vestibular portions.

The otic vesicleforms two visible regions: a ventral saccular portion and a dorsal utricular portion. The ventral saccular portion gives rise tointernal ear structures involved in hearing, including the cochlear ducts and saccules. The dorsal utricular portion gives rise to the vestibular system, includingthe utricle, semicircular canals, and endolymphatic tube.[3][4]Ultimately, the otic vesicle will differentiate to form all of the components of the membranous labyrinth and theinternal ear structures associated with hearing and balance.

The otic vesicle elongates within the firstfour weeks to form a tube-like structure called the endolymphatic appendage. Soon after, a groove-like indentation forms and demarcates a tubular diverticulum on the medial side of the endolymphatic appendage. This diverticulum differentiates into the endolymphatic duct and sac and continues to grow until around the age of four.[5]

Internal Ear: Ventral Saccular Component

The ventral saccular component of the otic vesicleformsa tubular cochlear duct, the primordial cochlea, within the mesenchymeby the sixth week. The cochlear duct grows and spiralstwo and a halftimes to produce the membranous cochlea. Rapidly, the saccule connects to the utricle via a duct called the ductus reuniens.

Mesenchyme surrounding the otic vesicle is induced to form a cartilaginous otic capsule, which will ossify to produce theinternal ear's bony labyrinth later in development. The cartilaginous otic capsule then forms vacuolesthat coalesce into the fluid-filled perilymphatic space of the cochlea. The fluid, or perilymph, resides within the perilymphatic space and surrounds the membranous labyrinth. The perilymphatic space thenseparates into two divisions: the scala vestibule and the scala tympani. Two membranes separate the cochlear duct from the perilymphatic divisions. The basilar membrane demarcates thecochlear duct from the scala tympani, while the vestibular membrane separatesthe cochlear duct from the scala vestibule. Cells in the lateral aspect of the cochlear duct differentiate to form the organ of Corti, or spiral organ or spiral organ of Corti, within the scala media of the cochlear duct. The cochlear ductalso develops an attachment to the surrounding cartilage via connective tissue,the spiral ligament.

Theorgan of Cortiis formedwhen ridges of epithelial cells from the cochlear ductproduce rows of mechanosensory hair cells that are covered by the tectorial membrane. The spiral ganglion forms when ganglion cells derived from the vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII) migrate along the spirals of the membranous cochlea. Nervous processes then extend from the spiral ganglion to hair cells of the organ of Corti.

Thecartilaginous oticcapsule surrounding the membranous labyrinth ossifiesby about 23 weeks to form the true bony labyrinth.[6]Around this time, the internal earhas reachedits adult size and form.

Internal Ear: Dorsal Utricular Component

The dorsal utricular portion of the otic vesicle forms the utricle and semicircular canals, the organs of balance. During thesixth week, disc-like epithelial outpouchings extend dorsolaterally from the dorsal utricular portion of the primordial membranous labyrinth. The central portions of thesediscs approach each other, and their epithelium joins to form fusion plateswhich ultimatelyregress via programmed cell death. The peripheral unfused portions of thediscs that fail to regress form incipient semicircular ducts that attach to the utricle. Later, the semicircular ducts are incorporatedwithin the anterior, posterior, and lateral semicircular canals.

At one end of eachsemicircularduct, a dilatation of the ductdevelops and is called anampulla. Theampullae contain sensory hair cells that form crests with specialized receptor areas, the cristae ampullares. Similarspecialized areas form in the walls of the saccule and utricle. These regions sense changes in angular acceleration and serve as the sensory organ of rotation. Sensory cells of the cristae ampullaresgenerate impulses that reach the brain via vestibular fibers of the vestibulocochlear nerve.[7]

Middle Ear

The middle ear is composed of the tympanic cavity and the Eustachian,also known as the auditory or pharyngotympanic, tube. Structures of the middle ear are derived fromthetubotympanic sulcus, or tubotympanic recess, an endodermal extension from the first pharyngeal pouch. Around the 5th weekof development, the tubotympanicsulcusextends laterally to approach the floor of the first pharyngeal groove but remains separated by mesenchyme. During development, the endoderm of the tubotympanicsulcus and the ectoderm of the first pharyngealgroovefurther approacheach other, but they continue to maintain a layer of mesoderm between them. The end result is a trilaminar tympanic membrane made up of tissues derived from all three germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.

The tympanic cavity developsas an expansion of the distal portion of the tubotympanic sulcus. Anatomically, the tympanic cavity divides into upper (attic) and lower (atrium) chambers and gradually surrounds the ossicles, their attachments, and the chorda tympani. The Eustachian tube is formed from the proximal portion of the tubotympanic sulcus. The Eustachian tube is more horizontal, short, and narrow at birth than in later adulthood, which is a major reason infants have recurrent ear infections. Despite anendodermal origin, both the tympanic cavity and the Eustachian tube are ultimately lined by epithelium-derived from endoderm and neural crest cells. The Eustachian tube demonstrates the most growth during weeks 16 to 28 of the fetal period.[8]

The middle ear ossicles initially form around six weeks of development. Theyfirst appear in a cartilaginous form that arises from neural crest-derived mesenchymal cellswithin the first and second pharyngeal arches that condense at the dorsal end of the tubotympanicsulcus. The malleus and incus develop from Meckel's cartilage of the first pharyngeal arch. The stapes have a complex origin, partly arising from both neural crest cells and Reichert's cartilage of the second pharyngeal arch. As the tympanic cavity develops, theossicular cartilages go through endochondral ossification that continues throughout the entire fetal period. Late in thefetal period, the mesenchyme that fills the tympanic cavity andsurrounds the ossicles is resorbedto produce an air-filled tympanic cavity with ossicles suspended inside. Eventually, the tympanic cavity expands and forms the mastoid antrum.

The tensor tympani musclearises from the mesoderm of the first pharyngeal arch and is innervated by the mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve. The stapedius muscle originates from the mesoderm of the second pharyngeal arch and is innervated by the facial nerve.[9][10]The middle ear continues to develop post-birthand through puberty.

External Ear

The external ear first developsin the lowercervical region, but it graduallymovesposterolaterally during development toreach its typical location.[11]The external ear's auricle develops from the mesenchymal proliferationof the first and second pharyngeal archesatthe end of thefourth week of development. Sixprominences, or auricular hillocks, form around the external auditory meatusand eventually fuse to form the auricle. Three auricular hillocks,hillocks 1to 3, arise from the first pharyngeal archto formthe tragus, helix, and cymba concha; andthree auricular hillocks, hillocks 4to 6, arise from the second pharyngeal arch toform the concha, antihelix, and antitragus.

The external auditory meatus arises from the dorsal portion of the first pharyngeal groove. The meatus first develops as an invagination of ectoderm between the first and second pharyngeal arches that extends toward the developing middle ear structures. Around the fifth week,the ectodermal diverticulum extends toward the pharynx andhouses proliferating ectodermal cells thatproducean epithelial plug, the meatal plug, that will fillsits entire lumen. At approximately tenweeks of development, theend of the meatal plug expands circumferentially to create a disc-like structure. Eventually, thedisc-like meatal plug contacts the primordial malleus, divides, and leaves behind a thin ectodermal layer forming anincipienttympanic membrane. A continuation of the thin skin of the pinna lines the entire external auditory meatus and the outer surface of the tympanic membrane. By 18 weeks, the external auditory meatus is completely patent and expands to produce itstypical morphology.

The auricle and externalauditory canal are both lined with keratinized squamous epithelium. The externalauditory canal is formed partly of cartilage and partly of bone. The internal bony segment has tiny hairs and cerumen-producing apocrine glands along its lining.

The tympanic membrane separates the external ear from the tympanic cavity and has a trilaminar structure with contributions from all three germ layers. The outerlayer of the tympanic membrane is composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium and is continuous with the surrounding external skin. The epithelium ofthe outer layer originates from the ectoderm of the first pharyngeal groove. The middle layer of the tympanic membrane is a thin fibrous connective tissue layer derived from mesoderm and composed of collagen and elastic fibers called the lamina propria. The inner mucosal layer of the tympanic membrane is derived from the endoderm of the first pharyngeal pouch. The mucous membrane is composed of a non-keratinized squamous epithelium that is continuous with the lining of the tympanic cavity.

The utricle and saccule are otolith organs located in the vestibule that detect movement in different planes. The utricle and saccule consist of sensory areas called maculaecomposed of supporting cells and hair cells covered in a gelatinous acellular matrix called the otolithic membrane. The otolithic membrane is embedded with calcium carbonate crystals called otoliths. The crista ampullaris of the semicircular ducts have a sensory epithelium similar to that of the macula, also consisting of hair cells and supporting cells. The hair cells of the cristae project into a gelatinous material called the cupula, which does not contain otoliths, and serves to detect rotational acceleration.

The organ of Corti is located on the basilar membrane and consists of a variety of supporting cells and two groups of hair cells: inner hair cells and outer hair cells. The inner hair cells account for approximately 95% of the sensory input into the auditory system and arrange in one line along the entire basilar membrane. The outer hair cells account for about 5% of sensory input and serve primarily as acoustical pre-amplifiers. The outer hair cells receive efferent input and contract when stimulated, resulting in amplified sound waves. The supporting cells include Hensen cells, Corti pillars, Deiters cells, and Claudius cells. The supporting cells play essential roles in the function and maintenance of theinternal ear and primarily serve structural and homeostatic functions.[12]

Proper formation and axial positioning of the components of the ear occur through complex reciprocal interactions between the epithelium and mesenchyme of the pharyngeal arches and hindbrain. These complex interactions involve a wide variety of essential genes, morphogens, and transcription factors that ultimately determine the fate of cells in theinternal ear. Members of the Wnt, Sonic Hedgehog (SHH), and fibroblast-growth-factor (FGF) families, combined with retinoic acid signals, regulate transcription factor genes within the primordialinternal ear to regionalize neurogenic activity and establish the axial identity of the ear.

Otic placode induction is dependent on Wnts and FGFs provided by the hindbrain and surrounding head mesenchyme. After induction, the otic placode continues to be influenced by signaling information from surrounding tissues that determine its positional identity along the dorsal-ventral, anterior-posterior, and medial-lateral axes. The anterior-posterior axis is the first axis to be specified. It requires retinoic acid, a key morphogen, to confer proper anterior and posterior identities of theinternal ear. Somites express high levels of Raldh2, a retinoic acid synthesizing enzyme that serves as the primary source of retinoic acid for patterning theinternal ear. Retinoic acid signaling results in proper anterior-posterior patterning of theinternal ear and establishes the neural-sensory-competent domain (NSD) in the anterior otic cup.

The neural-sensory-competent domain gives rise to neurons of the cochleovestibular ganglion, as well as prosensory cells of theinternal ear that differentiate into supporting cells or sensory hair cells. Neurogenin1 is a proneural gene that encodes a basic helix-loop-helix region (bHCH) transcription factor and is one of the earliest molecular markers determining the neurogenic fate of cells in theinternal ear. The anterior portion of the NSD contains Ngn1-positive cells that ultimately leave the otic epithelium and coalesce to become neurons of the cochleovestibular ganglion. The remaining sensory epithelium of the NSD develops into supporting cells, sensory hair cells, and some nonsensory cells.[13][14][15]

Proper patterning of theinternal ear dorsal-ventral axis involves the secretion of Wnts transcription factors from the dorsal hindbrain and the release of Sonic Hedgehog from the notochord and ventral floor plate. The patterning of the medial-lateral axis of theinternal ear has not been well studied. It is thought to involve hindbrain signaling mediated by the transcription factor Gbx2 from the otic epithelium.

Sonic Hedgehog is not only imperative in determining the dorsal-ventral axis of theinternal ear, but it is also responsible for regulating and determining auditory cell fates within theinternal ear. Sonic Hedgehog is released from the notochord and ventral hindbrain and allows for proper cochlear duct and semicircular canal development. The mesenchyme encasing the developinginternal ear is also essential for shaping the semicircular canals and cochlear duct into their final form through both structural and molecular means.

Although the mechanisms and molecules involved in the process of semicircular canal formation are largely unexplored, studies have implicated a variety of mesenchymal genes in canal formation, such as Prx and Pou3f4. Proper extension and outgrowth of the cochlear duct are dependent on Sonic Hedgehog secretion from the notochord and the release of transcription factors called Tbx1 and Pou3f4 from the otic mesenchyme. Studies have shown that an absence of Pou3f4 or Tbx1 in the otic mesenchyme results in abnormal shortening or coiling of the cochlear duct.[16][17][18]

Congenitalanomalies involving the ear maybe of significant physical and psychosocial concern to patients and the parents of afflicted children, given that these conditionsmay affect physical appearance, hearing, and balance.[19]In addition, the financial cost of such conditionscan be significant given the potentialfor long-termspecial education, healthcare, and accessibility needs. Around 15to 20% of neonates are estimated to be born with congenital abnormalities of the ear, and around 30% of these will resolve without intervention by six weeks of age.

While a wide variety of congenitalanomalies ofthe ear exist, those that impact hearing are particularly concerning.[2] Neonatal hearing loss may becomplete or partial, andapproximately 1 in 1,000neonates is estimated tohave "significant" congenitalhearing loss. Developmentalanomalies of the ear that result in conductive hearing loss tend to involve the external and/or middle ear, while those that result in sensorineural hearing loss often involve the inner ear. Additional congenital causes of sensorineural hearing lossimpact anatomicstructures outsideof the ear,including the vestibulocochlear nerve and auditory regions of the brain. The various developmentalanomaliesof the ear mayresult from genetic and/or environmental factors, the latteroften caused byviral infections, neonatal exposures, ornoise.

Internal Ear

Neonatal hearing loss is sometimes duetodevelopmentalanomalies of the neurosensory components of the internal ear. The most common cause, Enlarged Vestibular Aqueduct Syndrome (EVA), is an autosomal recessive condition in which there is a bilateral enlargement of the endolymphatic duct and vestibular aqueduct.[20]

Maternal infection with rubella isanother source of neonatal hearing loss that may hinder the development of the organ of Corti inthefourth week of development, resulting in its malformation. Similarly, maternal infection with cytomegalovirus is another potential causeof congenital sensorineural hearing loss.Other relatively commoncongenital anomalies of the internal earinclude Mondini dysplasia and autosomal dominant nonsyndromic hearing loss.

Middle Ear

Congenitalanomalies of the middle ear are relatively rare and include congenital fixation of one or more of the ossicles, a rare primary bone dysplasia called familial expansile osteolysis, and acyst-like abnormal accumulation of skin cells called cholesteatoma. Developmentalmalformationsof the middle ear structures responsible for sound conversion and transmission contribute to neonatal hearing loss.

External ear

Numerous congenitalanomalies of theexternal ear have been recorded in the literature.[21][22]Congenital anomalies of the external ear can potentially impact physical appearance or hearing.Given the role of the pharyngeal arches inthedevelopment of the external ear,anomalies of the external ear are associated with other pharyngeal arch anomalies and a variety of chromosomal disorders.

Preauricular tags, or simply ear tags, are common and usually benign findings in neonates that involve cutaneous, fatty, or cartilaginous growths. Occasionally, preauricular tagsmay be associated with other pharyngeal arch anomalies or genetic syndromes.Developmentally, accessory auricular hillockssometimes produce auricular appendages,preauricular tags, or an accessory auricle.

Microtia is a developmental anomaly of the external ear involving an under-developmentof the typical mesenchymal proliferationsthat formthe external ear. This condition presents at birth as an unusually small and sometimes misshapen external earandis highly variable inits degree of severity. Microtia is associated with conductive hearing loss due to the possibility of middle and external ear malformations and the potential for complete agenesis of the external auditory canal.[19]Bilateral microtia is aclassic indicator ofTreacher-Collins Syndrome (TCS) and is present in approximately 85% of patients with TCS.[23]

Cryptotiais a malformation of the cartilage of the external ear that involvespart of the externalear, usually the superior portion, being buried under the adjacent skin.[21]

Another external ear congenital anomaly, unilateral or bilateral atresia of the external acoustic meatus, occurs in individuals who retain the meatal plugdue to a failureof canalization. In most cases, the external acoustic meatus is only superficially obstructed by fibrous or bony tissue.Given its relationship to the first pharyngeal groove, atresia of the external acoustic meatushas been associated with variousmalformations. Finally, the complete absence of the external auditory meatus is a rare congenital anomaly of the external ear; this condition occurs due to a failure in the mesenchymal proliferation arising from the first pharyngeal groove.

Anatomy of the outer, middle, and inner ear. Image created for publication by Diana Peterson.

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Embryology, Ear - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf

Embryology

Fertility law and regulation need to changehere’s how it could happen – The BMJ

August 24, 2022 medical

The fertility sector has undergone radical changes, with the UKs 30 year old legislation unable to keep up. Sarah Graham asks what the UKs regulatory body needs to do about this

The past 30 years have seen the fertility sector undergo considerable change and expansion, not just in scientific and medical terms but in sociocultural and commercial terms as well. Once controversial and highly stigmatised, the use of assisted reproductive technologies is today an increasingly mainstream way of starting a family. Of the almost 22 million123 live births recorded across the UK between 1991 and 2019, more than 390000 babies (around 1.8%) were born as a result of fertility treatment.4 But while theres no doubt that fertility treatment has changed significantly, many agree that the legal and regulatory frameworks surrounding it have not kept up.

Julia Chain, chair of UK regulator the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority (HFEA), is clear about the need to update UK fertility law, bringing the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990 in step with the realities of modern life. Speaking to the Fertility 2022 conference in January, Chain said that while much of the act remains fit for purpose, shed like to see selective modernisation in three key areas: patient protection; scientific developments; and consent, data sharing, and anonymity.5

The HFEA has already taken the first steps towards parliamentary change. According to a spokesperson from the Department of Health and Social Care, The [HFEA] has agreed with the department that it will undertake a review of the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act to identify priorities for modernisation and present a report on its proposals by the end of the year. The department welcomes this work and we will consider the report when it is completed. So what do doctors and

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Fertility law and regulation need to changehere's how it could happen - The BMJ

Embryology

Indiana Family Health Council pushes for more sex ed after abortion ban – WTHR

August 24, 2022 medical

Around 480,000 Hoosiers are in need of publicly-funded contraception, according to the latest data from the Indiana Family Health Council.

INDIANAPOLIS In less than one month, most abortions will be illegal in Indiana. Now, there's a renewed push to teach more sex education in schools.

Around 480,000 Hoosiers are in need of publicly-funded contraception, according to the latest data from the Indiana Family Health Council. The president and CEO acknowledged that her team won't be able to help all these men and women. She said that's why more education early on would help in preventing unwanted pregnancy.

The Indiana Family Health Council uses federal funding to provide family planning services and education for families and school systems. Their services focus on those at or below the poverty level.

Following Indiana's abortion ban, CEO and President Dr. Kristin Adams said they're already starting to see more people wanting long-acting, reversible contraceptives.

However, Adams said education will be even more crucial following Sept. 15, when most abortions won't be allowed in the state. She said schools should be teaching sexual education longer than a semester and beyond what is required by Indiana law. However, to her knowledge, schools aren't considering changing their rubric.

"The only thing that must be taught is HIV education and basic embryology. So, there is nothing that says sex ed must be taught and if it is, then it must be done at the abstinence focus," Adams said. "While the legislature did put a lot of language in there about rape and incest, at the end of the day, sometimes kids don't know what those words mean, and they don't know what happened to them. So, with a time limit, it may be too late."

Adams said while it's not a requirement, students should be knowledgeable about contraception.

"Some school systems choose not to address the issue, and then when you think about health education and when kids get that, it's usually at ninth or tenth grade, and it's only for a semester. So, it's not lifelong learning," Adams said. "I used to teach at the university level. By the time I got them at 18,19, 22, 23 and sometimes in their 30s, they didn't have a basic understanding of their own bodies."

Adams said conversations should be happening at home as well. Age-appropriate conversations should happen early and often, she said.

"This is human nature. This is who we are, and no matter your belief on abortion or not, we need to be having open and honest conversations and not making it feel like we need to be ashamed of this. So, let's keep the dialogue open, let's keep the medical information flowing. Let's be factual about it," Adams said.

Next fall, Indiana will be getting a mobile unit to deliver contraceptives, pap smears and STD testing to help with access.Indiana Family Health Council expects to start offering these services late next year.

Adams said she knows these conversations about sex can be uncomfortable. For assistance, she recommends visiting ifhc.org or emailing info@ifhc.org.

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Indiana Family Health Council pushes for more sex ed after abortion ban - WTHR

Embryology

Letter writer disturbed by abortion support | Letters to the Editor | thebrunswicknews.com – Brunswick News

August 24, 2022 medical

After reading several abortion-supporting letters, I needed to respond to their deeply disturbing lack of care for human life. They are advancing the culture of death. Very sad people support killing of innocent unborn babies in what should be their safest haven their mothers womb. Their arguments are illogical. Each child has unique, individual, unrepeatable DNA. When that child is killed in abortion, the unique human being can never be replicated. Sad. All for the right to choose. Right to choose what? Women should have choices in living their lives. But some choices are wrong like choosing to intentionally kill an innocent human being. Ive heard many say a womans life is ruined if pregnancies are sustained. In other words, kill a baby due to inconvenience.

Why is society choosing to devalue human life so callously and casually? It is not just a clump of cells. Embryology and science have proven this wrong, but pro-death activists spout this lie. A clump of cells doesnt have a heartbeat three weeks from conception. A local protester said he doesnt support killing babies. If you vote for politicians championing this evil against innocent children, then you support murder of the unborn. You cannot hide the truth. The abortion lobby uses verbal engineering, seeking to hide that truth. The left supports abortions up until birth. Voting for these radicals poses a threat to every new and existing human life.

Stop the madness and immorality. Vote pro-life. Babies lives depend on it!

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Letter writer disturbed by abortion support | Letters to the Editor | thebrunswicknews.com - Brunswick News

Embryology

How spilled coffee inspired a Boston sperm-testing startup – The Boston Globe

August 24, 2022 medical

Khaled Kteily might never have founded his Boston home health care startup, Legacy, if not for spilling a hot beverage in his lap.

The accident left him with second-degree burns around some sensitive areas. And when a friend mentioned he was having his sperm tested and saved before chemotherapy, Kteily decided he should also get tested in case the burns affected his future fertility.

A student at Harvards John F. Kennedy School, Kteily went to a Cambridge sperm bank, where he was quizzed about intimate details of his sexual history in the waiting room, then sent to the specimen collection room. As he sat in the dark, he tried not to think of how many people had sat in the same spot to perform the same task.

Everything about that experience was so dehumanizing for someone who just wanted to be proactive about their fertility, Kteily recalled.

But the experience also gave him the idea for Legacy, an at-home sperm testing and collection service. He set up the company at Harvards Innovation Labs in May 2018 and went through the startup accelerator Y Combinator in 2019. So far, Legacy has raised more than $45 million, including a $25 million round this year led by Bain Capital Ventures that also included celebrities DJ Khalid, Orlando Bloom, and Justin Bieber. (Including the celebs was part of our effort to de-stigmatize and normalize the conversation around infertility, Kteily said.)

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More chemicals in the environment, higher stress levels, and other illnesses are contributing to a decrease in male fertility, Kteily noted. Sperm concentration declined by 50 percent or more from 1973 to 2011, according to a widely cited study by the European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology though a Harvard study last year challenged those findings.

Legacy offers sperm testing and storage at much lower prices than typical sperm banks. Charging about $300 upfront for testing plus about $100 per year for storage, Legacy is undercutting the industry by hundreds of dollars per year.

Its sometimes a challenge to conduct marketing like a typical health startup. Legacy wanted to run advertisements in Texas and New York using the word sperm, but the term was prohibited by the billboard companies.

Its the medical term, Kteily said. So thats one of the challenges you face working in a stigmatized industry like ours.

The latest effort at Legacy is a joint research project with the Veterans Health Administration and the agencys New England Center for Innovation Excellence, located in Bedford. Legacy will take sperm samples from veterans of recent conflicts and measure their fertility over time. Soldiers can be exposed to chemical toxins on the battlefield and also suffer other injuries that affect fertility.

We know based upon existing evidence that male veterans are at high risk of infertility, but we dont really know why, we dont have a good scientific reason, said Dr. Ryan Vega, chief officer for health care innovation and learning at the VA. The research project with Legacy is really aimed at trying to begin to put the puzzle together.

While both male and female veterans suffer from infertility problems, males are less likely to seek treatment, according to surveys conducted by the VA. The agency hopes Legacys project will also help it encourage more veterans to get help.

We want to make sure that we can present an opportunity for our veterans to have that space to have the conversations with their providers to seek care for infertility issues, Leandro DaSilva, acting director of the innovation excellence center, said.

In addition to its fertility services, Legacy is also expanding its services to include home testing for sexually transmitted diseases.

We believe that on the path to parenthood, there are a number of products and services that were going to be able to offer as part of our vision, which is to unlock sperm as a biomarker of health, Kteily said.

Aaron Pressman can be reached at aaron.pressman@globe.com. Follow him on Twitter @ampressman.

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How spilled coffee inspired a Boston sperm-testing startup - The Boston Globe