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Biochemistry

[Full text] The Recurrent Liver Disorder of a Pregnant Mother: Intrahepatic Choles | IMCRJ – Dove Medical Press

Background

As described by Ahlfeld (1883), intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy (ICP), is a frequent jaundice in pregnancy that can be relieved following delivery, it may reoccur in subsequent pregnancies.1 ICP is a common pregnancy-related liver disease seen in the second and third trimesters of pregnancy.2 Clinically it characterized by a rash and an itching sensation all over the body, particularly on the hands and feet. Elevated liver enzymes, including serum aminotransferases and/or elevated serum bile acid levels (>or = 10 micromol/L) are usually spontaneously relieved after delivery, and no later than one month post-partum. ICP may reoccur in subsequent pregnancies.3 ICP is a liver disease unique to pregnancy with a global prevalence ranging from 0.3% and 5.6% of pregnancies. Its prevalence differs from one country to the other and is more common in countries like Chile and Bolivia.1,4

Even though, the pathogenesis of ICP is not well defined and its etiology is multifaceted, it is related to abnormal biliary transport across the canalicular membrane. Available literature suggest that genetic, environmental, hormonal, and exogenous factors all play a role in the occurrence of ICP.57 Even though ICP will not usually have severe and complex outcomes, it has been associated mostly with preterm delivery, meconium staining of amniotic fluid, fetal bradycardia, fetal distress and fetal demise.1,3,6,811 The underlying mechanisms associated with poor fetal outcome are largely unknown. Poor fetal outcomes, including asphyxia events and spontaneous preterm delivery, have been shown to be associated with elevated maternal total serum bile acids (TBA) (40 micromole/L) in pregnancy.3,12

It is controversial to set the standardized and the most optimal management for women with ICP.9 But pharmacotherapy, antenatal fetal monitoring, analysis of the bile acid and early elective delivery are the currently proposed management options, so as to reduce poor outcomes for both mother and baby.1,9,11,13

A 31-year-old Gravida III and Para II mother came to the outpatient clinic of the University of Gondar specialized hospital, North West Ethiopia, in January 2019 complaining of pruritus (mainly under the breasts, on the neck, palms of the hands and soles of the feet) along with jaundice at 24 weeks gestational age (GA). She had a history of antenatal care follow up at a nearby health center. She presented to us with singleton and intrauterine pregnancy.

On arrival, she was screened for both subjective and objective data for her current and past obstetric, medical, surgical, gynecological, social, personal and family history. She had a history of early neonatal loss and one living child, her bilirubin value was elevated, she suffered pruritus and hepatomegaly in her previous pregnancies. She had a personal and family history of pruritus during pregnancy. From her previous personal history, she reported a history of similar features that resembled her current clinical presentation. The rest of her laboratory investigations and physical examination results, including vital signs (blood pressure 100/70 mmHg), were in their normal range and she arranged for her next follow up after being provided with an antihistamine drug and offered counseling and health education to ensure the best outcome for her pregnancy. At 30 weeks GA, she was assessed for any complaints, including the worsening of pruritus and underwent liver biochemistry tests. Based on this, her bilirubin total and bilirubin direct tests were 4.52 mg/dl and 3.45 mg/dl respectively. Other complete blood count tests and urinalysis were within the normal range. The progress of the pregnancy was also assessed using ultrasound and showed no any abnormality. At 34 weeks GA her bilirubin values became elevated, whereas her liver function test on both alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) were 83U/L and 75 U/L, respectively. The value of prothrombin time (PT) and partial thromboplastin time (PTT) were 12.2 and 34.6 seconds, respectively. Urine bilirubin, urobilinogen, urine nitrite, and Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBS-antigen) tests were negative. But there was no opportunity for a TBA laboratory test.

As a result of having some abnormally elevated liver biochemistry tests, and the clinical features of the patient's current and past obstetric history, a decision was made to admitthe patient to the obstetric ward after a diagnosis of ICP was made. After admission various checks were carried out, including: weekly fetal surveillance with ultrasound and using a kick chart; administration of four doses of dexamethasone 12 hours apart to accelerate fetal lung maturation at 33 weeks GA; administration of antihistamine drugs to alleviate the suffering from pruritus; and psychological reassurance of the patient. The patient's clinical symptoms were not improved after administering antihistamine drugs and she suffered from severe pruritus following the administration of dexamethasone. At 37 weeks GA, the obstetrician and midwives had a detailed discussion and decided to deliver the baby. Initially the cervix was ripened with a Foley catheter so as to have an acceptable BISHOP score and then induction of labor with oxytocin was carried out. During this time a non-reassuring fetal heart rate pattern was detected with a cardiotocograph (CTG) and was confirmed with ultrasound. Finally, a successful caesarean section was done performed to deliver a 2.8 kg live female baby with an APGAR score of 8 and 9 in the 1st and 5th minutes, respectively. Following delivery, the patient remained inhospital for a week and was discharged to home with both mother and baby in stable conditions. The evaluation of the patient during the puerperium two weeks after giving birth was good, with the normalization of the liver biochemistry tests and the disappearance of the pruritus. The bilirubin total, ALT and AST decreased to 1.1 mg/dl, 32 U/L, and 31 U/L respectively. The evaluation of the baby was also good, with normal physical development.

With the unknown etiology of ICP, various factors are indicated to be associated with high prevalence of ICP; these factors include genetics, the environment, coexisting liver and biliary tract conditions or abnormal metabolism of bile acid due to the high secretion of estrogen during pregnancy, hyper emesis gravidarum, multiple pregnancies and over stimulation of ovarian or oral contraception. The most frequent ICP complication to the fetus is preterm delivery.3,8 Especially the risk of preterm delivery is significantly higher for those patients with total bile acids (TBA)>40 mol/l.3 It was found that the mechanism of preterm delivery with ICP is that bile acid activity results in an increased sensitivity of the uterine muscle to oxytocin and in the increased oxytocin receptor expression. Having a TBA >11 mol/L in the third trimester of pregnancy is a direct indicative of ICP. The measurement of bile acid concentration is a basic test aimed at diagnosis and therapy monitoring of the ICP. Meanwhile, the activity of alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) isoenzymes could be considered as having a positive interaction in the sera of women with intrahepatic cholestasis14 and having a history of allergic reactions may mean they are more likely to develop ICP15 but for our patient there was no history of allergic reactions. Hence it is better to consider such a test while suspecting and detecting this case. ICP has its own differential diagnoses including fatty liver disease, hepatobiliary disorder, HELLP syndrome, skin disease, renal pruritus and hyper emesis gravidarum. As a result, it is better to consider all these and differing diagnoses while anticipating ICP. In the management of ICP, the major role should be preventing still birth and minimizing the adverse effects of ICP clinical features on the mother. As various literatures suggest,8,11 there is no definitive cure for ICP other than alleviating the suffering from pruritus with drugs like Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA),2 antihistamines and delivering the baby as early as possible (from 3738 weeks GA) as the clinical features of ICP will regress and disappear after delivery.

Finally, ICP is a cholestatic liver disease unique to pregnancy with a variable worldwide prevalence ranging between 0.3% and 5.6% of pregnancies. After confirming the diagnosis of ICP with a liver biochemistry test indicating total serum bile acid and its signs and symptoms as a clinical feature, close follow up of the patient is mandatory so as to prevent and minimize the adverse outcomes of ICP. For our patient after a serial laboratory test and weekly fetal surveillance, a trial of induction with oxytocin was performed and finally an effective cesarean section was carried out to deliver a 2.8 kg living female baby with an indication of non-reassuring fetal heart rate pattern. ICP regressed and disappeared at the three week follow up in the puerperium.

ALT, alanine aminotransferase; AST, aspartate aminotransferase; GA, gestational age; ICP, intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy; PT, prothrombin time; PTT, partial thromboplastin time; TBA, total serum bile acid.

The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon formal request.

The Ethical clearance letter was obtained from the Institutional Review Board of the University of Gondar. Patient consent was taken with written informed consent form and she was volunteer to participate.

Written informed consent was obtained from the patient for publication of this case report and any accompanying images.

We would like to acknowledge University of Gondar Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology as well as school of midwifery for allowing us to report on this case. Our deepest gratitude goes to our patient for her cooperation on revealing both her subjective and objective data, as well as her permission for us to publish this article.

All authors made a significant contribution to the work reported, whether that is in the conception, study design, execution, acquisition of data, analysis and interpretation, or in all these areas; took part in drafting, revising or critically reviewing the article; gave final approval of the version to be published; have agreed on the journal to which the article has been submitted; and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

The authors declared that they did not have any competing interest.

1. Ali Aya MK, Shazly SA, Abbas AM, Mohammed SA. Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. Evid Based Womens Health J. 2013;3(14).

2. Rodrigo Zapata F. Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy: even today a puzzling disease of pregnancy. 2017.

3. Rook M, Vargas J, Caughey A, Bacchetti P, Rosenthal P, Bull L. Fetal outcomes in pregnancies complicated by intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy in a Northern California cohort. PLoS One. 2012;7(3):e28343. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0028343

4. Chacko KR, Wolkoff AW. Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy: new diagnostic insights. Ann Hepatol. 2017;16(2):176178. doi:10.5604/16652681.1231550

5. KondrackiEne JKL, Kupcinskas L. Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy current achievements and unsolved problems. World J Gastroenterol. 2006;14(38):57815788. doi:10.3748/wjg.14.5781

6. Shashank Shekhar S, Diddi G. Liver disease in pregnancy. Taiwan J Obstet Gynecol. 2015;54:475482. doi:10.1016/j.tjog.2015.01.004

7. Li M. Recurrent intrahepatic cholestasis pregnancy: a case report. J Clin Obstet Gynecol Infertil. 2017;1(4):1018.

8. Kenyon AP, Piercy CN, Girling J, et al. Obstetric cholestasis, outcome with active management: a series of 70 cases. BJOG. 2002;109:282288. doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.2002.01368.x

9. Geenes V, Williamson LC, Chappell LC. Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. Obstetric Gynaecolog. 2016;18(4):273281. doi:10.1111/tog.12308

10. Grone M AK, Smith JF. Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. Liver Dis. 2012;13(3).

11. Palmer KR, Xiaohua L, Mol BW. Management of intrahepatic cholestasis in pregnancy. Lancet. 2019;393(10174):853854. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)32323-7

12. A G, Marschall HU, Mattsson LA. Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy: relationships between bile acid levels and fetal complication rates. Hepatology. 2004;40(2):467474. doi:10.1002/hep.20336

13. Guideline RG-t. Obstetric cholestasis. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists; 2011:43.

14. Jelski W, Piechota J, Orywal K, Mroczko B. The alterations in alcohol dehydrogenase activity in the sera of women with intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. Anticancer Res. 2020;40(4):19972001. doi:10.21873/anticanres.14155

15. Morton A, Laurie J. The biochemical diagnosis of intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. Obstet Med. 2019;12(2):7678. doi:10.1177/1753495X18795979

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[Full text] The Recurrent Liver Disorder of a Pregnant Mother: Intrahepatic Choles | IMCRJ - Dove Medical Press

Human Behavior

Hundreds of fish species, including many that humans eat, are consuming plastic – The Conversation US

Trillions of barely visible pieces of plastic are floating in the worlds oceans, from surface waters to the deep seas. These particles, known as microplastics, typically form when larger plastic objects such as shopping bags and food containers break down.

Researchers are concerned about microplastics because they are minuscule, widely distributed and easy for wildlife to consume, accidentally or intentionally. We study marine science and animal behavior, and wanted to understand the scale of this problem. In a newly published study that we conducted with ecologist Elliott Hazen, we examined how marine fish including species consumed by humans are ingesting synthetic particles of all sizes.

In the broadest review on this topic that has been carried out to date, we found that, so far, 386 marine fish species are known to have ingested plastic debris, including 210 species that are commercially important. But findings of fish consuming plastic are on the rise. We speculate that this could be happening both because detection methods for microplastics are improving and because ocean plastic pollution continues to increase.

Its not news that wild creatures ingest plastic. The first scientific observation of this problem came from the stomach of a seabird in 1969. Three years later, scientists reported that fish off the coast of southern New England were consuming tiny plastic particles.

Since then, well over 100 scientific papers have described plastic ingestion in numerous species of fish. But each study has only contributed a small piece of a very important puzzle. To see the problem more clearly, we had to put those pieces together.

This story is part of Oceans 21Our series on the global ocean opened with five in depth profiles. Look out for new articles on the state of our oceans in the lead up to the UNs next climate conference, COP26. The series is brought to you by The Conversations international network.

We did this by creating the largest existing database on plastic ingestion by marine fish, drawing on every scientific study of the problem published from 1972 to 2019. We collected a range of information from each study, including what fish species it examined, the number of fish that had eaten plastic and when those fish were caught. Because some regions of the ocean have more plastic pollution than others, we also examined where the fish were found.

For each species in our database, we identified its diet, habitat and feeding behaviors for example, whether it preyed on other fish or grazed on algae. By analyzing this data as a whole, we wanted to understand not only how many fish were eating plastic, but also what factors might cause them to do so. The trends that we found were surprising and concerning.

Our research revealed that marine fish are ingesting plastic around the globe. According to the 129 scientific papers in our database, researchers have studied this problem in 555 fish species worldwide. We were alarmed to find that more than two-thirds of those species had ingested plastic.

One important caveat is that not all of these studies looked for microplastics. This is likely because finding microplastics requires specialized equipment, like microscopes, or use of more complex techniques. But when researchers did look for microplastics, they found five times more plastic per individual fish than when they only looked for larger pieces. Studies that were able to detect this previously invisible threat revealed that plastic ingestion was higher than we had originally anticipated.

Our review of four decades of research indicates that fish consumption of plastic is increasing. Just since an international assessment conducted for the United Nations in 2016, the number of marine fish species found with plastic has quadrupled.

Similarly, in the last decade alone, the proportion of fish consuming plastic has doubled across all species. Studies published from 2010-2013 found that an average of 15% of the fish sampled contained plastic; in studies published from 2017-2019, that share rose to 33%.

We think there are two reasons for this trend. First, scientific techniques for detecting microplastics have improved substantially in the past five years. Many of the earlier studies we examined may not have found microplastics because researchers couldnt see them.

Second, it is also likely that fish are actually consuming more plastic over time as ocean plastic pollution increases globally. If this is true, we expect the situation to worsen. Multiple studies that have sought to quantify plastic waste project that the amount of plastic pollution in the ocean will continue to increase over the next several decades.

While our findings may make it seem as though fish in the ocean are stuffed to the gills with plastic, the situation is more complex. In our review, almost one-third of the species studied were not found to have consumed plastic. And even in studies that did report plastic ingestion, researchers did not find plastic in every individual fish. Across studies and species, about one in four fish contained plastics a fraction that seems to be growing with time. Fish that did consume plastic typically had only one or two pieces in their stomachs.

In our view, this indicates that plastic ingestion by fish may be widespread, but it does not seem to be universal. Nor does it appear random. On the contrary, we were able to predict which species were more likely to eat plastic based on their environment, habitat and feeding behavior.

For example, fishes such as sharks, grouper and tuna that hunt other fishes or marine organisms as food were more likely to ingest plastic. Consequently, species higher on the food chain were at greater risk.

We were not surprised that the amount of plastic that fish consumed also seemed to depend on how much plastic was in their environment. Species that live in ocean regions known to have a lot of plastic pollution, such as the Mediterranean Sea and the coasts of East Asia, were found with more plastic in their stomachs.

This is not just a wildlife conservation issue. Researchers dont know very much about the effects of ingesting plastic on fish or humans. However, there is evidence that that microplastics and even smaller particles called nanoplastics can move from a fishs stomach to its muscle tissue, which is the part that humans typically eat. Our findings highlight the need for studies analyzing how frequently plastics transfer from fish to humans, and their potential effects on the human body.

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Our review is a step toward understanding the global problem of ocean plastic pollution. Of more than 20,000 marine fish species, only roughly 2% have been tested for plastic consumption. And many reaches of the ocean remain to be examined. Nonetheless, whats now clear to us is that out of sight, out of mind is not an effective response to ocean pollution especially when it may end up on our plates.

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Hundreds of fish species, including many that humans eat, are consuming plastic - The Conversation US

Human Behavior

Pet cats support social skill development and anxiety mitigation among children with autism – PsyPost

A study published in the Journal of Pediatric Nursing suggests that cats make valuable companions for children with autism spectrum disorder. The study found that children with autism showed greater empathy, less separation anxiety, and fewer problem behaviors after a cat was introduced into their family.

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) present with communication difficulties, behavioral challenges, and often suffer from heightened anxiety. While many treatments exist that address these symptoms, research suggests that youth with ASD regularly experience isolation and their families face heightened stress.

One practice that has proven itself effective in improving the lives of children with ASD and their families is the introduction of a companion animal. While most studies have focused on dogs as companion pets, Gretchen K. Carlisle of the University of Missouri Research Center for Human-Animal Interaction and her team say that cats may offer their own unique benefits. Since cats are generally calmer animals than dogs and since they require less looking after, these animals may be less taxing for children with ASD and their families.

Faced with a lack of research in this area, Carlisle and her colleagues conducted an experimental study to see whether children with ASD would effectively bond with pet cats adopted into their families. The researchers also examined whether the children would show improvements in social skills and anxiety after the cat adoption.

A small sample of 15 children with ASD and their families were randomly assigned to either adopt a shelter cat (treatment group) or to be waitlisted to adopt a cat 18 weeks later (control group). Both groups were studied and, following the 18 weeks, families in the control group then adopted a cat and became a second treatment group. Due to study dropout, 10 families in total adopted cats. The children were between the ages of 6-14 and the cats were screened for a docile temperament.

Throughout the study, each childs primary caregiver completed assessments of the childs social skills and anxiety at weeks 6, 12, and 18. The treatment group completed additional assessments of attachment to the pet for both the parent and child 2-3 days into the pet adoption and at weeks 6, 12, and 18.

Of the 10 families who adopted cats, two families gave up the cats one did so because the child was reportedly not bonding with the cat, and the other did so because the parent did not like the cats behavior.

However, among the rest of the sample, both the children and their primary caregivers reported strong bonding with the cats 2-3 days into the adoption. This attachment to the pets remained high throughout the study.

Moreover, the childrens social skills improved. By week 12 after adopting the cat, the children showed increased empathy. By week 6, they showed reduced bullying behavior, reduced hyperactivity and inattention, and lower separation anxiety.

If parents of children with ASD are considering acquiring a pet, it would be best to consider the needs/desires of their child and their family rather than just defaulting to a dog because they have heard a lot about dogs for children with ASD on social media, Carlisle tells PsyPost.

Externalizing behaviors like aggression and outbursts of anger are more frequent among children with ASD and can add stress to the family unit. The cats appeared to help the children regulate these problem behaviors, as evidence by the childrens reduced bullying behavior. The researchers point out that the cats also appeared to have a calming effect on the children, reducing their levels of hyperactivity. Moreover, although children with ASD often feel overwhelmed by changes in their environment, the findings showed that introducing a cat in the home actually reduced the childrens anxiety and had an overall positive effect on the family unit.

Overall, Carlisle and her team say that their study offers evidence that cats can be positive companion animals for children with ASD, although future studies should attempt to replicate their findings among a larger sample. The authors emphasize that families of children with ASD should be assisted in choosing a cat with a calm demeanor and should be properly informed concerning the caretaking involved with cat ownership and the potential adjustment period for both the pet and family.

This study had a small sample, so a larger study would be helpful to confirm our findings. In addition to this, it will be helpful to explore other pets such as guinea pigs or rabbits, Carlisle adds.

The study, Exploratory study of cat adoption in families of children with autism: Impact on childrens social skills and anxiety, was authored by Gretchen K. Carlisle, Rebecca A. Johnson, Ze Wang, Jessica Bibbo, Nancy Cheak-Zamora, and Leslie A. Lyons.

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Pet cats support social skill development and anxiety mitigation among children with autism - PsyPost

Physiology

As climate change cranks up the heat in the Mojave Desert, not all species are equally affected – Iowa State University News Service

AMES, Iowa Climate change doesnt affect every species equally.

Even among species that share the same habitat, some organisms adapt more readily than others to environmental fluctuations wrought by climate change. This realization has led biologists to try to predict which species are most vulnerable to climate change.

A new study published this week in the peer-reviewed journal Science shows how climate change is having a much greater impact on birds than small mammals in the Mojave Desert in the southwestern United States. The study, led by an Iowa State University scientist, utilized computer simulations to explore differences in how birds and mammals experience the direct effects of climate warming on their ability to maintain a stable body temperature.

The study could inform conservation practices and shed new light on how animals respond to changes in their environment, said Eric Riddell, lead author of the study and an assistant professor of ecology, evolution and organismal biology.

We wanted to answer how physiology influences where animals can live and their vulnerability to climate change, Riddell said. We built these simulations that mimic how animals interact with their environment so we can identify which combinations of traits make species vulnerable to climate change and which ones dont.

Riddell contributed to the project as a postdoctoral researcher at the University of California, Berkeley. A UC Berkeley biologist named Joseph Grinnell collected copious amounts of data on wildlife in the Mojave region in the early 1900s. Biologists conducted surveys in recent years at the same sites visited by Grinnell, comparing todays wildlife populations to those of 100 years ago. The new study drew on data for 34 small mammal species at 90 sites and 135 bird species at 61 sites located primarily on protected lands in southeastern California. Previous analyses showed that, as the Mojave Desert grew hotter and drier as a result of climate change, bird populations collapsed while mammals held steady.

Steven Beissinger, a UC Berkeley professor of environmental science, policy and management and a researcher at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, said the extreme environment of the desert highlights the biological differences noted in the study.

Scientists tend to assume that most species in a region experience the same exposure to temperature or precipitation changes, and that they all respond in the same way, Beissinger said. But, we're finding now that animals have diverse strategies for reducing their exposure to hot and dry conditions that could kill them. You should see these differences most strongly in a harsh environment like the desert, where life is really on the edge.

Computer simulations conducted by Riddell for the study explain those changes by examining the biology and behaviors of the species in question. Riddell compared the way animals control their body temperature, similar to how houses control temperature. We devote energy to warm our houses in the winter or cool our homes in the hot summer months, all to maintain a comfortable temperature range. Similarly, animals must devote energy to regulating their temperature as well, Riddell said. The amount of energy animals have to devote to cooling themselves in hot conditions is called the animals cooling cost. Riddells computer simulations showed how birds in the Mojave region, such as the prairie falcon and the mountain chickadee, have higher cooling costs than the small mammals that live in the same region. The small mammals analyzed in the study include rodents such as the cactus mouse or the kangaroo rat.

Riddells models account for how the animals bodies absorb or reflect sunlight, how insulated their bodies are and a range of other factors. The differences in cooling costs observed in the study accounts for the discrepancy in bird and mammal populations. Hotter conditions have a greater impact on birds because their cooling costs are higher, according to the study.

Riddell said studies like his can guide conservation policies. He said the study shows that basing climate change responses solely on the degree of warming in a region is unlikely to benefit all species in an area.

Rather, we may need to focus on predicting the unique experience of climate change for species to identify regions with the greatest potential to harbor the most species under climate change, Riddell said.

And monitoring species within affected areas might help scientists gauge the pace of climate change and how quickly mitigation strategies should be enacted, he said.

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As climate change cranks up the heat in the Mojave Desert, not all species are equally affected - Iowa State University News Service

Genetics

Window into the genetics behind equine reproduction grows ever wider, say researchers – Horsetalk

The genetic origins behind reproductive traits are still far from clear, and this is especially so for horses, researchers say. Photo by Phinehas Adams

The knowledge of the reproductive architecture of horses on a genetic level is likely to grow considerably over the next few years, the authors of a just-published review predict.

The genetic origins behind reproductive traits are still far from clear, and this is especially so for horses.

Nora Laseca and her colleagues, writing in the journal Animals, said reproductive traits are complex and usually determined by multiple genes.

They also have low heritability, which makes them particularly sensitive to environmental and management factors, such as age, nutrition, training, temperature at mating, and breeding season.

By that reason, modeling reproductive traits from a genetic point of view is difficult, they wrote in their review of recent advances and studies analyzing genomic mechanisms affecting reproductive function in mares and stallions.

This is particularly important in equines, whose fertility is considerably lower than that observed in other domestic species, they said.

In addition, equine reproductive efficiency is limited by their own physiology, characterized by single births in almost all the foalings, seasonality in mares, long generation intervals delaying genetic improvement, and a lack of systematized collection of phenotypic information reproductive traits.

Nevertheless, a certain degree of genetic influence has been described and modelized from a quantitative viewpoint, in mares and stallions.

For instance, gestation length in mares is affected by maternal lineage or inbreeding, while changes in sperm traits are related to the genetic background of the individual, lineage and breed, as well as by the inbreeding value.

However, there are very few reports which describe the molecular mechanisms involved in such genetic influence or which detect the candidate genes involved in the biological processes.

The advent of genomics has led to the development of new approaches to genetic analysis in livestock, including the detection of specific mutations and other genetic issues.

However, their use in equines is still limited, probably due to the delay in the development of a reliable reference genome, in comparison with most livestock species, such as pigs or cattle, but also by a lack of reliable expected progeny differences and phenotypic values associated to the variations in fertility in the species.

Laseca and her colleagues noted that, although the use of genomic methods in horses has increased significantly over the past five years, studies focusing on reproductive traits remain few and far between.

There are even fewer which aim to dissect and quantify more accurately the influence of the genetic background and the environment in the expression of the observable traits, they noted.

Horse genomics is currently undergoing an exponential expansion, not least due to the adaptation of new genomic methodologies to the species, the existence of a new, accurate reference genome, and the exponential increase in the number of equines which have been genotyped.

It is, therefore, highly likely that our knowledge of the reproductive architecture of horses will grow considerably over the next few years.

However, large-scale datasets of reproductive phenotypes are still scarce in horses, probably due to the lack of availability of reliable reproductive phenotypes (particularly in mares).

Therefore, the development of new phenotypes to measure reproductive fitness more objectively and their systematic use by breeder associations are essential to allow a more in-depth study of the reproductive function in horses.

In addition, the search for candidate genes is a highly promising way to obtain a better understanding of the processes involved in horse fertility.

They not only can help to elucidate which physiological functions could be affected by a specific genotype, but also to predict which genotypes could be more affected by environmental challenges, and they can be integrated into breeding programs to detect, even at very young ages, the potential fertility (increased, normal, or decreased) of a given mare or stallion.

The authors said the lack of consistency observed in candidate genes associated with fertility detected in different breeds or populations of horses, (most of them detected by a single study) will be reduced only with an increase in the volume of evidence gathered.

In this sense, only 11 genes reviewed in their paper were detected by two or more studies, and only five were detected using more than one approach.

It was recently shown that combined genomic approaches in the same study can increase accuracy and reliability in detecting candidate genes. However, no combined studies have yet been reported in horses. Such combined approaches would constitute the best approach in our search for a better, more reliable understanding of genetic effects on horse fertility.

The review team comprised Laseca, Gabriel Anaya, Zahira Pea and Antonio Molina, with the University of Crdoba in Spain; and Yamila Pirosanto and Sebastin Demyda Peyrs, with the National University of La Plata and the Higher Council for Scientific and Technological Research, both in La Plata, Argentina.

Laseca, N.; Anaya, G.; Pea, Z.; Pirosanto, Y.; Molina, A.; Demyda Peyrs, S. Impaired Reproductive Function in Equines: From Genetics to Genomics. Animals 2021, 11, 393. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11020393

The review, published under a Creative Commons License, can be read here.

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Window into the genetics behind equine reproduction grows ever wider, say researchers - Horsetalk

Anatomy

2021 IPPE: Anatomy of an outbreak a researcher’s take on cases of H2N2 avian influenza from a live bird market – The Poultry Site

Speaking at the 2021 International Poultry Science Forum, researcher Jongseo Mo from the Southeast Poultry Research Lab explained how different poultry species at live bird markets (LBMs) could serve as reservoirs of avian influenza.

His research, which focuses on the fluctuations of bird flu viruses at these markets in the north-eastern United States, found that the viruses quickly adapted to infect different poultry species. He observed that over the course of a year, one bird flu virus, H2N2/Ck/NY/19, became more transmissible due to a single genetic mutation. Infected Guinea fowl and Pekin ducks shed significant amounts of the virus for an extended period increasing the likelihood of new bird flu infections.

Mos results showed that bird flu viruses with this mutation had the ability to adapt to a new species reservoir. The H2N2 virus could exploit the live bird markets and circulate among multiple bird species, amplifying and sustaining the infection. He stressed that animal health authorities should increase disease surveillance in live bird markets. This bird flu outbreak was low-pathogenic and produced no mortalities the next one might not.

Bird flu, like other avian diseases, can be transmitted through direct contact. For most bird flu outbreaks, a sick bird usually shares space with a healthy one and the disease quickly spreads. This is why poultry farmers are encouraged to limit their birds contact with other flocks and implement biosecurity measures.

LBMs are uniquely challenging from a biosecurity and disease management perspective. Though the birds might be caged while they are in the market setting, there is still a high probability of contact between flocks and between species. People who go to the markets will often walk through other areas or accidentally step in bird faeces before entering the market space, introducing new pathogens to the environment. According to Jongseo Mo, the markets serve as a human-made reservoir for avian diseases. They could have serious animal and public health consequences if they arent properly managed.

Mo wanted to examine the pathogenicity, infectivity and transmissibility of two strains of H2N2 bird flu that he isolated from a live market in New York in 2018 and 2019. He specifically wanted to determine if the virus was changing and if it had the ability to adapt to new species chickens, Guinea fowl, and Pekin ducks.

The two isolated viruses, H2N2 Ck/NY/18 and H2N2 Ck/NY/19, were both low-pathogenic and collected from the three different bird species. However, Mo noted that the Ck/NY/19 isolate had NA stalk deletion in its genome. He hypothesised that this deletion would increase the virus transmissibility in poultry and waterfowl since this association had been observed in other studies.

He designed an experiment with three separate inoculation doses with the isolated viruses. He exposed the three bird species to a low, medium and high virus load, and collected samples to see how the virus was shed and transmitted between the bird species.

His results showed that the H2N2 Ck/NY/18 virus could infect all three bird species if they were exposed to high doses. In terms of shedding and transmission, Guinea fowl shed more virus than chickens. Birds exposed to low and medium doses of the virus did not transmit the infection.

However, birds inoculated with the H2N2 Ck/NY/19 virus at medium and high doses showed higher infectivity and shed the virus for a longer period. This meant that the virus could be transmitted to contact birds something that was not observed in birds inoculated with the Ck/NY/18 strain. Mo noted that Guinea fowl shed the most virus, with Pekin ducks and chickens shedding less respectively.

Mos research suggests that the NA stalk deletion seen in the Ck/NY/19 strain allowed the virus to proliferate quickly, making it more infective and transmissible as a result. The deletion also allowed the virus to replicate in two new bird species, ensuring that the virus remained active in its environment.

Going forward, Mo suggests collecting routine cloacal and oropharyngeal samples from birds at LBMs. If researchers can identify the NA stalk deletion in other bird flu viruses, they could take precautionary measures to prevent the spread of disease.

The International Poultry Science Forum ran on 25 and 26 January as part of the virtual IPPE Conference. Click here for more information about the event.

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2021 IPPE: Anatomy of an outbreak a researcher's take on cases of H2N2 avian influenza from a live bird market - The Poultry Site

Human Behavior

Men and women on the move | Stanford News – Stanford University News

Navigating, exploring and thinking about space are part of daily life, whether its carving a path through a crowd, hiking a backcountry trail or maneuvering into a parking spot.

A group of Hadza relocating to a new camp, 2005. (Image credit: Brian Wood)

For most of human history, the driving force for day-to-day wayfinding and movement across the landscape was a need for food. And unlike other primates, our species has consistently divided this labor along gender lines.

In new research published in Nature Human Behaviour, scientists including James Holland Jones of Stanford and lead author Brian Wood of University of California, Los Angeles, argue that the increasingly gendered division of labor in human societies during the past 2.5 million years dramatically shaped how our species uses space, and possibly how we think about it.

Underlying these conclusions is a huge and detailed trove of travel data revealing stark differences in the ways men and women among the nomadic Hadza people of Tanzania use space. A contemporary hunter-gatherer society, the Hadza provide a window into a highly mobile lifestyle, which was the norm for our species before the widespread adoption of agriculture.

Were taking gender differences as a given in this particular cultural setting, and then asking what consequences they have downstream, said Jones, an associate professor of Earth system science at Stanfords School of Earth, Energy & Environmental Sciences (Stanford Earth) and a senior fellow at Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment.

A better understanding of this dynamic could yield clues about why men and women seem to think about space differently. Research in many human populations suggests men and women are better at different types of spatial tasks. On average, women tend to excel on spatial memory tasks, while men tend to score higher on two basic measures of spatial cognition associated with movement: mental rotation of objects and accurately pointing to distant locations.

The paper examines a popular theory that mens hunting for wild game would produce more extensive and sinuous travel, and that womens harvesting of plant foods would lead to more concentrated, straight-line travel to and from known locations.

A view of all GPS tracks collected from one Hadza camp, with male tracks in red, female tracks in green. (Image credit: Brian Wood)

While previous efforts to substantiate the theory have relied heavily on verbal accounts, the researchers here tested it by examining more than 13,000 miles of travel logged on lightweight GPS trackers worn by Hadza foragers between 2005 and 2018. One or two researchers would walk through camp early in the morning as people were rousing, the authors write. We would greet people at their homes or hearths and hand out GPS devices to be worn during the day.

Around nightfall, when most people had returned to camp, Wood and assistants hired in the Hadza community removed the devices. They ultimately used data from 179 people, representing 15 camps and ranging in age from 2 to 84 years old.

The authors also examined the degree of overlap in the lands visited by men and women. One of the most surprising results of this study was the fact that Hadza men and women essentially occupy different worlds from a young age. In our data, most of the landscape was effectively gender-segregated, said Wood, an assistant professor of anthropology at UCLA who began working on this paper a decade ago as a postdoctoral scholar at Stanford.

To analyze the movement data, the researchers adopted techniques from the field of movement ecology and also developed custom software. As expected, the results show men walked further per day, covered more land in less direct paths and were more likely to travel alone. In this hunting and gathering context, male work is more navigationally challenging, the researchers write.

Although some individual day journeys extended to 20 miles or more, Hadza men overall averaged 8 miles per day and women many of them accompanied by young children averaged nearly 5 miles. Gender differences emerged by the age of 6. From the mid-40s, the gender difference declined, mostly due to decreasing travel by men while women sustained more of their daily mileage.

Detailed spatial data like those amassed in this study will aid future comparative research into human mobility, according to the authors. This holds particular resonance in light of a pandemic that has forced sudden revisions of normal movement patterns and heightened attention to the costs and benefits of different spatial habits.

Three Hadza men at an overlook scouting for game, west of Lake Eyasi. (Image credit: Brian Wood)

Already, Wood has begun to apply technical, logistical and scientific lessons from this study to a new National Science Foundation project meant to help identify research and policy priorities to prepare the U.S. for inevitable future pandemics in part by measuring mobility and modeling patterns of social interaction. The study of human movement can be used to identify at-risk communities for disease transmission and spread, Wood explained.

Even when were not in a pandemic, Jones said, peoples mobility drives economic activity, social cohesion and environmental impacts. And the environment, in turn, shapes spatial behavior. That feedback loop is at the heart of some of the internal migration patterns already emerging as a response to global warming. As once-rare weather events become commonplace, Jones explained, migrant laborers will likely travel longer distances for work; more people will engage in seasonal migration to pursue agricultural work or escape hurricanes and droughts, and crop failures will drive more rural residents to urban areas.

Changing mobility is going to be one of the key ways that humans adapt to a heated world, Jones said. Knowing more about gender differences and other drivers for spatial behaviors across a wide swath of human populations and ecological contexts will help us anticipate how this adaptation will play out and inform policies to manage it.

The research received funding from the National Science Foundation, the Leakey Foundation, the Wenner-Gren Foundation, the National Geographic Society, Yale University, UCLA and the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.

Wood is also affiliated with the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. Coauthors are affiliated with the Max Planck Institute, Arizona State University, University of Southern California, Duke University, University of Chicago, University of Roehampton, University of Nevada, University of Dar es Salaam and University of Utah.

To read all stories about Stanford science, subscribe to the biweeklyStanford Science Digest.

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Men and women on the move | Stanford News - Stanford University News

Physiology

Insecticide on flowers can stop bees and flies from getting sleep – THE WEEK

Pesticides used on plant can make flies, like bees, mad without sleep, say researchers who studed the impact of common pesticides on the insect brain.

Just like us, many insects need a decent night's sleep to function properly, but this might not be possible if they have been exposed to neonicotinoid insecticides, the most common form of insecticide used worldwide, suggests research by academics at the University of Bristol.

Two studies by scientists at Bristol's Schools of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience and Biological Sciences have shown these insecticides affect the amount of sleep taken by both bumblebees and fruit flies, which may help us understand why insect pollinators are vanishing from the wild.

Dr Kiah Tasman, Teaching Associate in the School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience and lead author of the studies, said: "The neonicotinoids we tested had a big effect on the amount of sleep taken by both flies and bees. If an insect was exposed to a similar amount as it might experience on a farm where the pesticide had been applied, it slept less, and its daily behavioural rhythms were knocked out of synch with the normal 24-hour cycle of day and night."

The fruit fly study has been published in Scientific Reports.

As well as finding that typical agricultural concentrations of neonicotinoids ruined the flies' ability to remember, the researchers also saw changes in the clock in the fly brain which controls its 24-hour cycle of day and night.

"Being able to tell time is important for knowing when to be awake and forage, and it looked like these drugged insects were unable to sleep. We know quality sleep is important for insects, just as it is for humans, for their health and forming lasting memories," said Dr James Hodge, Associate Professor in Neuroscience in the School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience and senior author for the study.

"Bees and flies have similar structures in their brains, and this suggests one reason why these drugs are so bad for bees is they stop the bees from sleeping properly and then being able to learn where food is in their environment, explained Dr Sean Rands, Senior Lecturer in the School of Biological Sciences and co-author.

"Neonicotinoids are currently banned in the EU, and we hope that this continues in the UK as we leave EU legislation."

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Insecticide on flowers can stop bees and flies from getting sleep - THE WEEK

Neuroscience

January: Pesticides and sleep in bees and flies | News and features – University of Bristol

Just like us, many insects need a decent nights sleep to function properly, but this might not be possible if they have been exposed to neonicotinoid insecticides, the most common form of insecticide used worldwide, suggests research by academics at the University of Bristol.

Two studies by scientists at Bristols Schools of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience and Biological Sciences have shown these insecticides affect the amount of sleep taken by both bumblebees and fruit flies, which may help us understand why insect pollinators are vanishing from the wild.

Dr Kiah Tasman, Teaching Associate in the School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience and lead author of the studies, said: "The neonicotinoids we tested had a big effect on the amount of sleep taken by both flies and bees. If an insect was exposed to a similar amount as it might experience on a farm where the pesticide had been applied, it slept less, and its daily behavioural rhythms were knocked out of synch with the normal 24-hour cycle of day and night."

The fruit fly study published today [21 January] in Scientific Reports, allowed the researchers to study the impact of the pesticides on the insect brain.

As well as finding that typical agricultural concentrations of neonicotinoids ruined the flies' ability to remember, the researchers also saw changes in the clock in the fly brain which controls its 24-hour cycle of day and night.

Dr James Hodge, Associate Professor in Neuroscience in the School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience and senior author for the study, added: "Being able to tell time is important for knowing when to be awake and forage, and it looked like these drugged insects were unable to sleep. We know quality sleep is important for insects, just as it is for humans, for their health and forming lasting memories."

Dr Sean Rands, Senior Lecturer in the School of Biological Sciences and co-author, explained: "Bees and flies have similar structures in their brains, and this suggests one reason why these drugs are so bad for bees is they stop the bees from sleeping properly and then being able to learn where food is in their environment.

"Neonicotinoids are currently banned in the EU, and we hope that this continues in the UK as we leave EU legislation."

Papers

Neonicotinoids disrupt memory, circadian behaviour and sleep by Tasman K, Hidalgo S, Zhu B, Rands SA & Hodge JJL in Scientific Reports

The neonicotinoid insecticide imidacloprid disrupts bumblebee circadian rhythms and sleep by Tasman K, Rands SA & Hodge JJL in iScience [open access]

About NeonicotinoidsNeonicotinoids are the most commonly used insecticides in the world and make up nearly 25 per cent of the global insecticide market, which is valued at US $1 billion/year. The intensive use of insecticides has been linked with the global decline in pollinating insects, and all four major types of neonicotinoid have largely been banned in the EU and currently in the UK.

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January: Pesticides and sleep in bees and flies | News and features - University of Bristol

Human Behavior

Work for success and work for satisfaction – Daily Excelsior

Prof. A.N. SadhuHuman life is a long journey. It involves a bodily effort to sustain oneself along the time path from birth to death. The evolution of human society necessitates an organized form of physical and mental activity to bring about sustainability and scientific advance for exploration and enhancement of quality of life that humans need to work, both, on mental and physical front is a natural requirement. The human activity may be categorized as work for success and work for satisfaction. People do work out of necessity. They also work for status progression as also for economic progression. Obviously, their focus is on work for success. Human nature and necessities of life demand that people should work to fit in the social system evolved over time. Normal human behavior would warrant that people work for success. This is necessitated by the requirement of sustaining self and family besides meeting other desirable and unavoidable expenditures in everyday life. The distinction between work for success and work for satisfaction may look philosophical and spiritual but, in real life, it is distinct on humanitarian principles. However, people born with silver spoon, do also work for physical fitness and robust health. They hardly realize either the necessity or the desirability of distinguishing between work for success and work for satisfaction. Their lack of this understanding on the one hand and the clout of a rich legacy on the other, makes them a social liability. They consume their capital at the cost of their future.The work for success is a normal human behavior. Career advancement and urge for recognition is a natural instinct. What is important is the means adopted for success. It is observed that if success alone is set as a goal for work people may adopt dubious ways to scale up the ladder of success and their work may be more pretentious than substantial. The poor content of their work is often camouflaged by sycophancy and it sells well in the mediocre officialdom. Substance takes the backseat against the salesmanship and showoff resulting into, many a times, people succeeding in selling barley for wheat. Unfortunately, the developing countries that emerged after the World War II have fallen in this trap. Success as a goal is a natural instinct but it should be pursued legitimately. The goal should be achievable within the means of hard and sincere work, honest handling of the assigned roles and skillful management for public good. Frequent scandals, that surfaced in the developing countries in the recent past have betrayed the public faith in the systems that have been evolved overtime. These tendencies could perhaps have been minimized if not eliminated had people set their goals not only for success but for satisfaction as well. Work for success is exclusive while as work for satisfaction is inclusive in character.The work ethos demands that one should work for satisfaction which automatically includes work for success as well. The exclusivity of work for success may tend to be devoid of ethics and result into corruption- both mental and material. Such a work is carried out in violation of basic principles of humanity; truth, honesty, commitment and sincerity in work. This restricts the evolution of healthy practices in the individual organizations as also in the overall systems of a nation. Success should be an honest pursuit which will lead a person highly satisfied at the end of the day. This success should not be stolen by cheating, it should come of its own as a reward for honest work. Work and morality should go together; that culminates in the work for satisfaction. Success through dubious means may be devoid of satisfaction and cause lot of regret in the long run.Work for satisfaction demands missionary zeal, sublime temperament and commitment to serve the society with higher ideals. Vivekananda has said that life is to be helpful to others and it is death not to be helpful to others. Work for satisfaction implies that it should not be only self-serving it should be serving the society as well. The work for satisfaction is self-realization at a higher pedestal. Attachment to cause and detachment from worldly temptations is a prerequisite of work for satisfaction. Look within to realize the essence of life. Dont assess yourself; let others do it. The work for satisfaction emanates from the environment one creates for oneself which in turn requires that people around you are happy because of your work and not that you alone are happy because of the work that you do. Work for satisfaction would also require that besides enhancing your competence, you also promote your social quality. Speak to enlighten, work to help and think to elevate yourself in comprehending the subtilities of social domain. One should not belong to the sole but to the whole. The work leading to ones success brings a smile on his face but the work leading to satisfaction brings a smile to the society. Men should remember; they belong to the society and do not live in isolation.If in an organization you are given a responsible position, the rest will look at you as a leader and leader is one who supervises, guides and transforms his team of workers into an asset. The leader does not command he only inspires. The motivation is a strong force to cultivate the spirit of teamwork. The satisfaction of work lives with the performer on everlasting basis when the success does not live beyond a point of time. Men in the lasting memory of the world have all worked for satisfaction and not for success alone. History is replete with stories of outstanding persons who worked throughout their life for satisfaction and success followed them and made them the men of all times such as Vivekananda and others.feedbackexcelsior@gmail.com

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Work for success and work for satisfaction - Daily Excelsior