Biochemistry

Biology – Biochemistry

Photosynthesis - an important biochemical reaction

Photosynthesis and the Web: 2008 - photosynthesis-related web sites grouped into several categories, e.g Subject Sites, Educational etc.- from Arizona State University

Milestones in Photosynthesis Research - Govindjee - a 32 page .pdf document (611 KB)

The Photosynthetic Process - from the Photosynthesis Research Unit, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, includes history of photosynthesis

A Primer on Photosynthesis and the Functioning of Cells - from the University of Michigan, Global Change I

The Nutrient requirements of Cells - from Kimball's Biology Pages

Photosynthesis- from the On-line Biology Book, Estrella Mountain Community College

Photosynthesis Study Guide - from Modern Biology textbook site

Photosynthesis in providing a source of energy

Vehicle Technologies Program from Office of Fuels Development US Dept of Energy -

Biodiesel, from US Dept of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

Just the basics: Biodiesel -.pdf (283 KB), U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

Carbon currency the credits and debits of carbon emissions trading - from Australian Academy of Sciences

Solar to Fuel: Catalyzing the Science - a paper from the Berkeley National Laboratory

Making Packaging Greener - Biodegradable Plastics, Reading list - from Australian Academy of Sciences

ABCs of Biopower - from the US Dept of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

The development of the theory of photosynthesis

Photosynthesis - including the contributions of key botanists, from Botany Online (The Internet Hypertextbook), University of Hamburg

Highlights in photosynthesis research - from the Nobel e-Museum

Research into Photosynthesis - from University of California, Berkeley

Chlorophyll - from Bristol University, UK

The people who contributed to the theory of photosynthesis

Analyzing van Helmont's Experiment - a student exercise

Hales, Stephen 1671-1761 - from History of Horticulture, the Ohio-State University

Nicolas-Theodore de SAUSSURE - from CYBERLIPID CENTER

Photosynthesis - from Botany Online, Hamburg University, details Blackman and Mathei's findings

Sachs, Julius Von 1832-1897 - from History pf Horticulture, the Ohio-State University

Julius v. SACHS (1832-1897) - from Botany Online, University of Hamburg

Mikhail Tswett (1872-1919) - from Le Moyne College

History of Development of Chromatography - from Wiley Publishing (pdf 1.28 MB)

Mikhail Tsvet - from Chemistry Daily

The Light Reactions of Photosynthesis - from Botany On-line, University of Hamburg

Robert HILL FRS (1899-1991) - brief memoir by a student (pdf, 550 KB)

Martin Kamen, Who Discovered Carbon-14 Here, Wins Fermi Award

Nobel Prize Awarded to Nine Berkeley Lab Scientists - from Science Beat at The Berkeley Labs

MELVIN CALVIN - from Nobel e-Museum

Melvin Calvin, 1961 Nobelist and UC Berkeley professor, dies at age 85 - from University of California, Berkeley

Photosynthesis - a light dependent reaction

Why study photosynthesis? - from Arizona State University

An Introduction to Photosynthesis and Its Applications - from Arizona State University

Johnsons's Photosynthesis Simulation - requires Shockwave - investigate the effects of light intensity and wavelength on Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis Simulation - laboratory activity based on the above simulation

Photosynthetic Pictures Are Worth More Than a Thousand Words - from Access Excellence

Photosynthesis: The Role of Light - Biology Pages are produced by John Kimball formerly a professor at Harvard University

Photosynthesis - Light Reactions. from Old Dominion University

Photosynthesis Problem Set 1 - from The Biology Project, University of Arizona, set of multiple choice questions with detailed feedback

Photosynthesis Problem Set 2 - from The Biology Project, University of Arizona, set of multiple choice questions with detailed feedback

Without pigments we're nothing - from University of Arizona

Chloroplasts and chlorophyll

Chloroplasts - from Kimball's Biology Pages

What the Heck is a Chloroplast? from Bugs in the News, Kansas University

Photosynthesis and Chromatography of its Pigments - from Science Projects

An Introduction to Chromatography - from Access Excellence

Chromatography - from Rensselaer Polytchnic Institute

Paper Chromatography - from Kimball's Biology pages

Chromatography - from Chemistry Daily

Lab 5 Green Plant I - Kean University, scroll down to SEPARATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF LEAF PIGMENTS

Use of radioisotopes in tracing biochemical reactions

Photosynthesis: Pathway of Carbon Fixation - Biology Pages are produced by John Kimball formerly a professor at Harvard University

Biosynthesis of Carbohydrates - from The Biology Project, The University of Arizona

The Dark Reactions of Photosynthesis, Assimilation of Carbon Dioxide and The CALVIN Cycle - from Botany Online, University of Hamburg

Photosynthesis Study Guide - for Modern Biology, Holt, Reinhart and Winston

ATP - energy currency

The Energy Relationships in Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis: the Balance Sheet - Biology Pages are produced by John Kimball formerly a professor at Harvard University

Energy: Making ATP - a detailed overview from University of Connecticut

Adenosine Triphosphate - ATP - from Molecule of the Month, Bristol University

Peter Mitchell (1920 - 1992) - and the chemiosmotic hypothesis from University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1997 - Walker, Boyer and Skou, from the Nobel e-Museum

Electron microscope and visualising plant organelles

Chloroplast - from Cells Alive

Chloroplasts - from Kimball's Biology Pages

Cell Structure and Function - Studyguide -see Question 27 (pdf, 300 KB)

Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) - from The University of Nebraska

An Introduction to Microscopy - including The History of the Microscope

Virtual Microscopy - Interactive Java Tutorials, from Molecular Expressions

Page Maintained By: uniserve@usyd.edu.au Last Update: Monday, 30-Apr-2012 14:29:02 AEST URL: http://science.uniserve.edu.au/school/curric/stage6/biol/biolchem.html

Originally posted here:
Biology - Biochemistry

Biochemistry

Biochemistry and molecular biology – La Trobe University

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Biochemistry and molecular biology are where biology and chemistry meet.

Study cell and molecular biology, disease, cell death and ageing, immunology, biotechnology, DNA and protein chemistry, metabolism and drug and vaccine development. Our courses have lots of practical training and field trips.

Biochemistry and molecular biology can be taken as a major in the Bachelor of Bioscience or studied as part of manyother science degrees.

Students have access to some of the best teaching and research facilities in the world with the completion of the new $100 million LaTrobe Institute for Molecular Science (LIMS) building.

You will be prepared for a career in many areas related to biomedical research, molecular cell biology and biotechnology.

Our students find work in government organisations, research institutes and private industry.

NB: The ATARs published here are a guide, based on the most recent intake, and can change from year to year. These are Clearly-in ATARs, meaning applicants with scores equivalent to, or higher than the quoted ATAR, were made an offer.

In the first year of this degree, you'll explore the basics of animal, plant and microbial biology through the lenses of cell biology, genetics, evolution, biodiversity and ecology. In second and third year, you can specialise through a choice of majors including botany, microbiology, zoology, biochemistry or genetics.

You'll get plenty of hands-on experience in our labs or on field trips to diverse habitats across Victoria. You'll be exposed to cutting edge biological research via world-class research institutes (the La Trobe Institute of Molecular Science and Centre for AgriBiosciences) and you'll have access to the La Trobe Wildlife Sanctuary on our Melbourne Campus.

During your field excursions you'll learn techniques to survey animal and plant biodiversity. During lab classes you'll gain the skills to conduct scientific experiments and develop and present your own work.

Along with practical and theoretical classes, we'll help you prepare for the workplace through opportunities for paid work experience.

If you intend to apply only to La Trobe you can apply direct to the University until applications close in December. Late direct applications may be accepted.

Please note: VTAC applications cannot be withdrawn in order to submit a direct application. The same selection criteria and entry standards are applied to VTAC and direct applications.

To find out more about this course and studying at La Trobe: - ask us a question - chat online - visit our FAQ page - connect with us on Facebook, Twitter or Instagram - call us on 1300 135 045.

The delivery of this course can vary between campuses. For detailed information please select the relevant campus:

First year foundational science subjects focus on biology and chemistry. Second year subjects - biosciences, medical science, biochemistry, genetics, anatomy, physiology and microbiology - will lead you towards your third year specialisation and postgraduate studies.

You'll learn about the human body in health and sickness, and gain knowledge of medical biochemistry, microbiology, pharmacology, cell and molecular biology, anatomy, physiology, infectious diseases and neuroscience.

You'll discover the symptoms of disease, learn how to analyse scientific and medical data, and do practical lab work. Third year advanced biochemistry and medical sciences internships and lab courses give you more hands-on experience. We'll also show you how to read, research and interpret scientific publications and teach you to meaningfully convey scientific and biomedical science information in writing.

Through this degree, you'll have access to the La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science - our $100 million teaching and research facility. With our industry cadetship program, you can also gain workplace experience, building on your skills and industry connections.

First year students may be eligible for the Dean's Scholarship for Academic Excellence or other undergraduate scholarships. We also offer overseas study opportunities, including clinical placements and volunteering.

You can apply to study this course through our Hallmark Scholars Program. See the listing for Hallmark Course Group C for more details.

NB: Meeting minimum prerequisites does not guarantee an offer of a place. Entry into all La Trobe courses is based on competitive selection and there may be limited places available.

Selection may also be based on GPA or STAT Multiple Choice.

If you intend to apply only to La Trobe you can apply direct to the University until applications close in December. Late direct applications may be accepted.

Please note: VTAC applications cannot be withdrawn in order to submit a direct application. The same selection criteria and entry standards are applied to VTAC and direct applications.

To find out more about this course and studying at La Trobe: - ask us a question - book a one-on-one consultation - chat online - visit our FAQ page - connect with us on Facebook, Twitter or Instagram - call us on 1300 135 045.

The delivery of this course can vary between campuses. For detailed information please select the relevant campus:

Our law degree has a strong focus on global and social justice. You'll study the essential legal areas like criminal law, constitutional law and legal ethics. You'll also cover science-related topics such as intellectual property and medicine and the law. Visiting lecturers from high profile law firms will help you develop an understanding of dispute resolution and recent legal developments.

You'll have the opportunity to participate in additional studies including Honours in Laws, subjects from our Global Business Law program at the Master's level, and clinical practice in a law firm.

The science component of this degree can be tailored to your interests. Choose from a range of specialisations including botany, computer science, psychology, chemistry and physics, and get hands-on experience through lab studies and field trips.

Only the first two years of this course are offered in Bendigo. While it is possible to arrange long-distance learning, we recommend transferring to the Melbourne Campus to complete your degree with a wider selection of subjects. Law electives are also available in intensive delivery at Melbourne in summer and winter schools.

If you intend to apply only to La Trobe you can apply direct to the University until applications close in December. Late direct applications may be accepted.

Please note: VTAC applications cannot be withdrawn in order to submit a direct application. The same selection criteria and entry standards are applied to VTAC and direct applications.

To find out more about this course and studying at La Trobe: - ask us a question - chat online - visit our FAQ page - connect with us on Facebook, Twitter or Instagram - call us on 1300 135 045.

The delivery of this course can vary between campuses. For detailed information please select the relevant campus:

This is one of our most flexible degrees with up to 18 specialist areas to choose from including agricultural science, biochemistry, biomedical science, botany, chemistry, computer science, electronics, environmental geoscience, genetics, information technology, mathematics, nanotechnology, statistics, microbiology, physics, psychology and zoology.

During your first two years, you'll study a range of introductory subjects to give you a solid foundation in science and related disciplines. Students enrolled at our Albury-Wodonga Campus will transfer to Melbourne or Bendigo after completing first year.

In third year, you'll either select two science specialties or combine your science major with studies from another discipline, like business or engineering.

Throughout your course, you'll have access to purpose-built facilities including the La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science. You'll also have opportunities for work placements with organisations like the Department of Environment and Primary Industries and other businesses conducting research in biochemistry, chemistry and genetics.

Through our partnerships with education providers all over the world, you'll also have the opportunity to study abroad and gain knowledge of alternative scientific processes and practices.

You can apply to study this course at Bendigo or Melbourne Campus through our Hallmark Scholars Program.

NB: Meeting minimum prerequisites does not guarantee an offer of a place. Entry into all La Trobe courses is based on competitive selection and there may be limited places available.

If you intend to apply only to La Trobe you can apply direct to the University until applications close in December. Late direct applications may be accepted.

Please note: VTAC applications cannot be withdrawn in order to submit a direct application. The same selection criteria and entry standards are applied to VTAC and direct applications.

To find out more about this course and studying at La Trobe: - ask us a question - chat online - visit our FAQ page - connect with us on Facebook, Twitter or Instagram - call us on 1300 135 045.

The delivery of this course can vary between campuses. For detailed information please select the relevant campus:

In the first year of this degree, you'll explore the basics of animal, plant and microbial biology through the lenses of cell biology, genetics, evolution, biodiversity and ecology. In second and third year, you can specialise through a choice of majors including botany, microbiology, zoology, biochemistry or genetics.

You'll get plenty of hands-on experience in our labs or on field trips to diverse habitats across Victoria. You'll be exposed to cutting edge biological research via world-class research institutes (the La Trobe Institute of Molecular Science and Centre for AgriBiosciences) and you'll have access to the La Trobe Wildlife Sanctuary on our Melbourne Campus.

During your field excursions you'll learn techniques to survey animal and plant biodiversity. During lab classes you'll gain the skills to conduct scientific experiments and develop and present your own work.

Along with practical and theoretical classes, we'll help you prepare for the workplace through opportunities for paid work experience.

TOEFL Paper-based Test - a minimum overall score of 550 with a score of 5 or more in the Test of Written English;

TOEFL Internet-based Test - a minimum overall score of 60 with a minimum for SLR 18; W 22;

Satisfactory completion of the English for Further Studies Advanced Stage 5B (EFS5 UG minimum 60 per cent) which is available from La Trobe Melbourne; for more information please visit the La Trobe Melbourne website.

La Trobe Melbourne Foundation Studies: 60 per cent final result in a course;

English as the language of instruction in tertiary studies may be accepted. Please note: English as the language of instruction in previous study will not be accepted as a basis of admission (English) for courses where the approved test score requirement is above an IELTS 6.5 with no band score lower than 6.0.

Pearson Test of English (Academic) (PTE): a minimum score of 57 with no communicative skill score less than 50.

Cambridge Certificate of Advanced English (CAE): a grade of B or higher.

Cambridge Certificate of Proficiency in English (CPE): a pass grade of C or higher;

or approved international equivalent.

If you do not meet these entry requirements you might be interested in La Trobe's Foundation Studies and Diploma Programs, which provide an alternative pathway to La Trobe's undergraduate program. For more information please visit the La Trobe Melbourne website.

NB: The scores above are indicative only and may change based on the number of applications received and places available. Achieving the above listed scores does not guarantee an offer of a place.

The delivery of this course can vary between campuses. For detailed information please select the relevant campus:

First year foundational science subjects focus on biology and chemistry. Second year subjects - biosciences, medical science, biochemistry, genetics, anatomy, physiology and microbiology - will lead you towards your third year specialisation and postgraduate studies.

You'll learn about the human body in health and sickness, and gain knowledge of medical biochemistry, microbiology, pharmacology, cell and molecular biology, anatomy, physiology, infectious diseases and neuroscience.

You'll discover the symptoms of disease, learn how to analyse scientific and medical data, and do practical lab work. Third year advanced biochemistry and medical sciences internships and lab courses give you more hands-on experience. We'll also show you how to read, research and interpret scientific publications and teach you to meaningfully convey scientific and biomedical science information in writing.

Through this degree, you'll have access to the La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science - our $100 million teaching and research facility. With our industry cadetship program, you can also gain workplace experience, building on your skills and industry connections.

First year students may be eligible for the Dean's Scholarship for Academic Excellence or other undergraduate scholarships. We also offer overseas study opportunities, including clinical placements and volunteering.

You can apply to study this course through our Hallmark Scholars Program. See the listing for Hallmark Course Group C for more details.

TOEFL Paper-based Test - a minimum overall score of 550 with a score of 5 or more in the Test of Written English;

TOEFL Internet-based Test - a minimum overall score of 60 with a minimum for SLR 18; W 22;

Satisfactory completion of the English for Further Studies Advanced Stage 5B (EFS5 UG minimum 60 per cent) which is available from La Trobe Melbourne; for more information please visit the La Trobe Melbourne website.

La Trobe Melbourne Foundation Studies: 60 per cent final result in a course;

English as the language of instruction in tertiary studies may be accepted. Please note: English as the language of instruction in previous study will not be accepted as a basis of admission (English) for courses where the approved test score requirement is above an IELTS 6.5 with no band score lower than 6.0.

Pearson Test of English (Academic) (PTE): a minimum score of 57 with no communicative skill score less than 50.

Cambridge Certificate of Advanced English (CAE): a grade of B or higher.

Cambridge Certificate of Proficiency in English (CPE): a pass grade of C or higher;

or approved international equivalent.

If you do not meet these entry requirements you might be interested in La Trobe's Foundation Studies and Diploma Programs, which provide an alternative pathway to La Trobe's undergraduate program. For more information please visit the La Trobe Melbourne website.

NB: The scores above are indicative only and may change based on the number of applications received and places available. Achieving the above listed scores does not guarantee an offer of a place.

Please apply through VTAC if youre completing your VCE or International Baccalaureate (IB) in Victoria, or apply through UAC if youre completing your HSC or IB in New South Wales.

A limited number of La Trobe College Excellence Scholarships are available, offering up to 25% reduction on your postgraduate course fees. Learn More

The delivery of this course can vary between campuses. For detailed information please select the relevant campus:

Our law degree has a strong focus on global and social justice. You'll study the essential legal areas like criminal law, constitutional law and legal ethics. You'll also cover science-related topics such as intellectual property and medicine and the law. Visiting lecturers from high profile law firms will help you develop an understanding of dispute resolution and recent legal developments.

You'll have the opportunity to participate in additional studies including Honours in Laws, subjects from our Global Business Law program at the Master's level, and clinical practice in a law firm.

The science component of this degree can be tailored to your interests. Choose from a range of specialisations including botany, computer science, psychology, chemistry and physics, and get hands-on experience through lab studies and field trips.

Only the first two years of this course are offered in Bendigo. While it is possible to arrange long-distance learning, we recommend transferring to the Melbourne Campus to complete your degree with a wider selection of subjects. Law electives are also available in intensive delivery at Melbourne in summer and winter schools.

TOEFL Paper-based Test: minimum score of 575 (minimum score of 5 in the Test of Written English).

TOEFL Internet-based Test: minimum score of 80 with minimum overall for SLR 18; W 22.

La Trobe Melbourne (ELICOS): completion of English for Further Studies Advanced Stage 5B Certificate at postgraduate (EFS5 (70 per cent) PG1) level. For more information please visit the La Trobe Melbourne website.

La Trobe Melbourne Foundation Studies: 70 per cent final result in a course.

English as the language of instruction in tertiary studies may be accepted. Please note: English as the language of instruction in previous study will not be accepted as a basis of admission (English) for courses where the approved test score requirement is above an IELTS 6.5 with no band score lower than 6.0.

Pearson Test of English (Academic) (PTE): minimum score of 64 with no communicative skill score less than 59.

Cambridge Certificate of Advanced English (CAE): a grade of B or higher.

Cambridge Certificate of Proficiency in English (CPE): a grade of C or higher.

or approved international equivalent.

If you do not meet these entry requirements you might be interested in La Trobe's Foundation Studies and Diploma Programs, which provide an alternative pathway to La Trobe's undergraduate program. For more information please visit the La Trobe Melbourne website. NB: The scores above are indicative only and may change based on the number of applications received and places available. Achieving the above listed scores does not guarantee an offer of a place.

Continue reading here:
Biochemistry and molecular biology - La Trobe University

Neuroscience

What is Neuroscience ? – All Psychology Careers

Rapid advances in technology combined with knowledge about how the brain and nervous system work have ushered in progress once considered purely science fiction, but today falling under a growing area of scientific study called neuroscience.

Take, for example, the case of implanting a sensor into a paralyzed individuals brain. The sensor detects thoughts that the individual has about moving an arm. These thoughts are then sent to a plug on the individuals scalp, which sends signals to a computer that translates the signals into motor movements.

Or consider the practice of placing electrodes under a persons scalp, electrodes connected to a battery-operated generator implanted under the skin near the individuals collarbone. The result? An intervention for a brain-related disorder called essential tremor.

Both of these cutting-edge medical interventions wouldnt have been possible without the field of Neuroscience, an area of specialty that wasnt formalized into its own field until 1971. Since then, the amount of investigation and research completed by those working in the field has grown faster than most other scientific areas of thought and empirical study.

And those individuals with devastating brain and spinal cord injuries, brain diseases and disorders, are the main beneficiaries of these once unimaginable scientific advancements.

The Society for Neuroscience (SfN) defines neurosicence as the study of the nervous system, including the brain, spinal cord, and networks of sensory nerve cells called neurons. It is an interdisciplinary field, meaning that it integrates several disciplines, including psychology, biology, chemistry, and physics.

In studying the nervous system, the field adds to a body of knowledge about human thought, emotion, and behavior the main area of expertise for those working in psychology, especially the field of Neuropsychology.

Both neuropsychologists and neuroscientists focus their research on the understanding of brain disorders, injuries, and deficits. For this reason, these scientists must have a solid understanding of how psychological processes relate to the brains structures and systems, or on the interrelated and inseparable connections between cognition and brain physiology.

To help those with brain disorders, neuroscientists first must understand normal brain functioning. Therefore, many neuroscientific investigations into abnormal brain functioning complement the science of normal brain functioning.

Neuroscientists study a wide range of topics related to the brain and nervous system. Most specialize, however, on a particular disability or problem associated with one brain region or area. The implanting of brain sensors is one example of specialized neuroscientific research.

In an August 2010 interview with The New York Times, John Donohue detailed how his research into combining brain signals with computers resulted in BrainGate, the invention responsible for returning some voluntary movements to paralyzed individuals. He has focused on using BrainGate to help those who have had strokes, incurred spinal cord injuries, or suffer with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).

Donoghue, a professor of engineering and neuroscience at Brown University, told reporter Claudia Dreifus, in the article Connecting Brains to the Outside World, that when he entered graduate school in 1976, his desire was to learn how the brain works. But, he realized that that question was too broad, and he needed to break it down into a more easily studied sub-topic, which became how does the cerebral cortex allow thoughts to become action?

In the 1980s, he and colleagues from his laboratory worked on technologies that permitted them to distinguish where brain activity occurred when the body moved, such as when arms or legs moved. These technologies led to the invention of the brain sensor.

In 2004, Donoghue and other researchers implanted the sensor into an individual that had a spinal cord injury that left him paralyzed. When they turned on BrainGate the sensor attached to a scalp plug thats attached to a computer they could see activity in his brain light up when he thought about moving his left or right hand. In other words, even though his body couldnt produce the movement, his brain still processed the command.

In the NYT article, Donohue related how up until that point, many assumed that brain function was reduced or nonexistent after a debilitating spinal cord injury. But this new technology pointed out that it was the connection between the brain and the desired movement that was injured, not the brain itself. In other words, theres a break or disconnect between the brain the other parts of the nervous system.

This has profound implications not for only BrainGate, but for anyone thinking about nervous system injuries, Donohue told the NYT.

Ultimately, Donoghue said, at the goal of BrainGate is to return lives impacted by neurological injuries back to a state of normalcy, or as close as possible to the productive lives they had before the injuries or illnesses.

Neuroscientists at the Mayo Clinic also want individuals suffering with brain and neurological disorders to regain normal functioning and their livelihoods. In its quarterly publication, Sharing Mayo Clinic, Mayo describes how its research into deep brain stimulation (DBS) led to some of the first applications of this technology in the United States.

In one particular case, world-renowned violinist Roger Frisch, associate concertmaster of the Minnesota Orchestra, thought his music career would be over after being diagnosed with a condition known as essential tremor.

A progressive neurological disorder, essential tremor results in tremors during certain movements, such as eating or writing. Tremors can also occur in the head, neck, jaw, and voice.

In Frischs case, the tremors occurred in his arms while performing. Kendall Lee, M.D., Ph.D., and specialist in DBS at Mayo Clinic, believed that locating the tremors source, or area of Frischs brain where the tremors materialized, could help alleviate them.

In order to accomplish this localization, Mayos surgical team had Frisch perform in the surgical suite where a device engineered by Mayos researchers measured the exact movement of Frischs hand, tracing and mapping the movement to the area of the activated brain.

The newsletter called the device an accelerometer, a small semiconductor device that measures movement in three dimensions. It was attached to a violin bow and connected to an amplifier and radio system.

The device transmitted data to a computer monitor where the research team saw the genesis and progress of the tremor as the bow moved across the strings. Electrodes were placed on Frischs skull where the researchers located the misfiring brain signals, and the tremors stopped.

Frisch then went into surgery so that the wires could be placed under the scalp and connected to a battery-operated pulse generator that sends constant electrical pulses to the brain. The generator is implanted under the skin by the collarbone.

If you are interested in the fields of Neuropsychology and Neuroscience, in research and medical facilities designed to treat individuals suffering from brain injuries and dysfunctions, contact schools offering degrees in psychology. One career path for neuroscience professionals is to major in neuropsychology and take additional coursework in biology, physiology, anatomy, chemistry, and other sciences. A Ph.D. is required to work in most areas of neuroscience.

Diagnosing traumatic brain injury (TBI) remains a tedious and often difficult process for many healthcare professionals, especially in cases of mild or moderate TBI. As a result, some individuals dont receive treatment or intervention for possible neurological deficits.

Banyan Biomarkers, a Florida-based privately held company wants to solve that problem.

Founded by two neuroscientists, Banyans researchers are trying to identify biomarkers in blood tests that accurately predict head injury. Research by Banyans scientists and published in the journal Critical Care Medicine, stated that a 66-patient study of individuals with severe brain injury had elevated levels of UCH-LI 16 times the level of those without a head injury.

Banyans scientists also stated in another article for the European Journal of Neuroscience that laboratory studies with rats showed blood tests with increased levels of UCH-LI for those with brain injury and stroke.

Battlefield explosions and sports injuries often leave individuals dazed but seemingly fine, performing some neurological tests adequately, but actually needing medical treatment, rest and recovery.

According to the International Brain Injury Association, the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) is currently used to divide individuals into mild, moderate, and severe injury. This is a symptom-based neurological test, checking vital signs, heart rate, blood pressure, and the patients thinking in terms of memory and consciousness.

A blood test showing a definitive marker for brain injury would significantly increase an accurate diagnosis for those with mild and moderate head injuries.

Of the mild TBI patients 40-50% suffer persistent neurological problems from one to three months following injury, and 25% after one year, according to the International Brain Injury Association website.

Even severe cases of brain injury can be hard to recognize. In 2009, actress Natasha Richardson died from a skiing accident that injured her head. Assuring her family that she was fine, she did not receive medical treatment as quickly as her injury required.

Read more:
What is Neuroscience ? - All Psychology Careers

Neuroscience

Neuroscience :: Biology :: Swarthmore College

Video: [1 min 23 sec]

Swarthmore students have direct access to faculty research opportunities. Stephen, a Neuroscience major, explains what it was like for him to collaborate with a Biology professor on her neuron research.

The Departments of Psychology and Biology offer a course major and an honors major in Neuroscience. Applications for this special major must be submitted to both departments. Each Neuroscience major will be assigned a primary advisor from whichever of the two departments best reflects the focus of that student's plan of study.

A. Entry Requirements for the Neuroscience Course Major and Honors Major

The study of Neuroscience involves advanced coursework with the following prerequisites. For admission to the Neuroscience special major, students must

a. complete (or otherwise satisfy) the following required courses (up to two credits of these taken at Swarthmore may be counted as Group B electives for the major), and

b. obtain a minimum GPA of 3.0 (B) for these courses overall, as well as within all Biology courses and within all Psychology courses.

Biology BIOL 001: Cellular and Molecular Biology

BIOL 002: Organismal and Population Biology

Chemistry CHEM 010: General Chemistry

CHEM 022: Organic Chemistry I

Math/Stat MATH 015: Elementary Single-Variable Calculus

STAT 011: Statistical Methods

Psychology PSYC 001: Introduction to Psychology

PSYC 025: Research Design and Analysis

The requirement for BIOL 001 and/or BIOL 002 may be satisfied by credit from the Biology AP exam (score of 5) if at least one credit in Biology has been completed at Swarthmore.

The requirement for CHEM 010 will be satisfied if the student has placed out of it and completed CHEM 022.

The requirements for MATH 015 and STAT 011 may be satisfied by placement out of these courses, as determined by the Department of Mathematics and Statistics

The requirement for PSYC 001 may be satisfied with a Psychology AP exam score of 5.

Provisional admission to the special major will normally be granted based on substantial progress in satisfying these entry requirements at the time of application.

B. Neuroscience Course Major Requirements

A special major at Swarthmore must include at least 10 credits and no more than 12 credits. A Neuroscience major will normally include two (2) Entry Requirement Courses (i.e., any two that have been taken at Swarthmore) and eight (8) Elective credits as specified below, including fulfilling the comprehensive requirement. Up to twelve credits may be included in the major, but only ten are required.

1. Electives

Majors will complete at least eight (8) elective credits from the following lists, to include at least one seminar. At least five (5) elective credits must be from Group A including at least one Foundation course and at least one course from each of Psychology and Biology. The remaining three (3) credits can be from either Group A, Group B, or Group C (see restrictions below). It is possible to substitute or add electives from other universities (e.g., Systems Neuroscience at UPenn), including abroadbut students should seek Swarthmore faculty approval for such courses in advance.

Group A: Neuroscience Electives

PSYC 030 Behavioral Neuroscience[Foundation Course*]

BIOL 022 Neurobiology [Foundation Course*]

BIOL 011 Epigenetics (spring 2015 ONLY)

BIOL 020 Animal Physiology

BIOL 029 Developmental Neurobiology

BIOL 030 Animal Behavior

BIOL 120 Sleep and Circadian Rhythms seminar (2 credits)

BIOL 123 Learning and Memory seminar (2 credits)

BIOL 124 Hormones and Behavior seminar (2 credits)

BIOL 131 Animal Communication seminar (2 credits)

BIOL 134 Evolution of Social Behavior (2 credits)

PSYC 031 Cognitive Neuroscience

PSYC 031A Social, Cognitive, and Affective Neuroscience

PSYC 032 Perception

PSYC 091 Advanced Topics in Behavioral Neuroscience

PSYC 130 Behavioral Neuroscience seminar (1 credit)

PSYC 131 Seminar in Cognitive Neuroscience (1 credit seminar)

PSYC 131A Psychology and Neuroscience: The Social Brain (1 credit seminar)

PSYC 132 Perception, Cognition, and Embodiment seminar (1 credit)

*At least one Foundation Course must be included. Both are recommended.

Group B: Course Electives in Related/Overlapping Scientific Areas

BIOL 010 Genetics

BIOL 014 Cell Biology

BIOL 019 Omics

BIOL 021 Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy

BIOL 024 Developmental Biology

BIOL 026 Invertebrate Biology

BIOL 034 Evolution

BIOL/CPSC 068 Bioinformatics

BIOL 110 Human Genetics seminar (2 credits)

BIOL 112 From Cells to Organs (2 credits)

BIOL 125 Frontiers in Developmental Biology seminar (2 credits)

BIOL 119 Genomics and Systems Biology seminar (2 credits)

BIOL 126 Biomechanics seminar (2 credits)

BIOL 136 Molecular Ecology and Evolution seminar (2 credits)

CHEM 038 Biological Chemistry

COGS 001 Introduction to Cognitive Science

CPSC 021 Introduction to Computer Science

MATH 056 Modeling

PSYC 033 Cognitive Psychology

PSYC 034 Psychology of Language

PSYC 035 Social Psychology

PSYC 036 Thinking, Judgment & Decision Making

PSYC 038 Clinical Psychology

PSYC 039 Developmental Psychology

PSYC 133 Metaphor and Mind seminar (1 credit)

PSYC 134 Psycholinguistics seminar (1 credit)

PSYC 138 Clinical Psychology seminar (1 credit)

PSYC 139 Developmental Psychology seminar (1 credit)

Group C: Research Electives

One unit of research (of up to 2 credits) in neuroscience from the following may be counted toward the minimum required 10 credits of the major. Additional research units may be counted for optional credits up to 12. Research electives are one way of fulfilling the comprehensive requirement (see below) for the Neuroscience major.

BIOL 098 Neuroscience Thesis Research

PSYC 096/097 Senior Thesis (2 credits)

PSYC099 Senior Neuroscience Thesis

PSYC 102 Research Practicum in Perception and Cognition

PSYC 103 Research Practicum in Behavioral Neuropharmacology

PSYC 104 Research Practicum in Mind and Language

PSYC 105 Research Practicum in Psychology and Neuroscience

PSYC 110 Research Practicum in Cognitive Neuroscience

2. Comprehensive Requirement

The comprehensive requirement is a Neuroscience Research Thesis, a complete scientific paper based on a research project conducted in Biology or Psychology or some other area related to neuroscience. The Research Thesis may either (1) be a research paper from a Group C elective, or (2) be based on a separate research project, such as might occur during a summer (whether at Swarthmore or at another institution) or as part of a laboratory project in a Neuroscience Elective (e.g., a 2-credit Biology seminar *).

In either case, a proposal will be submitted no later than the beginning of the senior year that explains the student's plan for conducting or completing the comprehensive requirement. If option 2 is selected, the proposal must be detailed. Upon approval of an option 2 proposal, students will register for a 0.5 credit unit of Neuroscience Thesis during either (but not both) semester of the senior year.; a 2-credit thesis will be evaluated by two faculty members, typically from two different departments.

*Students in Biology seminars often work on group projects and sometimes produce multi-authored research papers. Such a project may serve as the basis of a Neuroscience Research Thesis, but the paper must be a unique product of the student who submits it as his/her Thesis.

Neuroscience Research Thesis: Guidelines for content and organization.

The thesis should be organized in the format of a formal scientific paper, including the following sections: abstract, introduction, materials and methods, results, discussion, acknowledgments, and literature cited.

The thesis should report new empirical data on a research project that was conducted by the student.

As the comprehensive exercise for an interdisciplinary special major, students should endeavor to explain their scientific question(s) and how their work is related to larger questions or themes in neuroscience in the thesis introduction and/or discussion.

The length of the thesis is to be no more than 20 pages, double-spaced (exclusive of figures, tables, and references).

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Neuroscience :: Biology :: Swarthmore College

Neuroscience

Home | Institute of Neuroscience

Institute of Neuroscience

The Institute of Neuroscience (ION) is a group of biologists, psychologists, and human physiologists at theUniversity of Oregon that has pooled its expertise to tackle fundamental questions in neuroscience questions such as, "How do neural stem cells choose between self-renewal and differentiation?" "What mechanisms generate the large diversity of neurons within the brain?" "How do these neurons 'wire up' into functional circuits?" "How do neural circuits produce behavior?"

These questions are being explored at all levels of organization from the relatively simple nervous systems of Drosophila, C. elegans, and zebrafish to the more complex networks in mice, owls, and humans.

ION boasts a highly collaborativefacultywith expertise in genetics, development, electrophysiology, optogenetics, and functional MRI. As a result, students enrolled in ourPhD programcome away with the broad conceptual and technical skills necessary to run an independent neuroscience research lab or pursue many other related career paths. Our state-of-the-artfacilitiesand excellent support staff allow ION members to progress rapidly by making exploratory or pilot experiments accessible.

MEET OUR CO-DIRECTORS

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Embryology

Human embryogenesis – Wikipedia

This article is about Human embryogenesis. For Embryogenesis in general, see Embryogenesis.

Human embryogenesis is the process of cell division and cellular differentiation of the embryo that occurs during the early stages of development. In biological terms, human development entails growth from a one celled zygote to an adult human being. Fertilisation occurs when the sperm cell successfully enters and fuses with an egg cell (ovum). The genetic material of the sperm and egg then combine to form a single cell called a zygote and the germinal stage of prenatal development commences.[1] Embryogenesis covers the first eight weeks of development and at the beginning of the ninth week the embryo is termed a fetus. Human embryology is the study of this development during the first eight weeks after fertilisation. The normal period of gestation (pregnancy) is nine months or 38 weeks.

The germinal stage, refers to the time from fertilization, through the development of the early embryo until implantation is completed in the uterus. The germinal stage takes around 10 days.[2]

During this stage, the zygote, which is defined as an embryo because it contains a full complement of genetic material, begins to divide, in a process called cleavage. A blastocyst is then formed and implanted in the uterus. Embryogenesis continues with the next stage of gastrulation when the three germ layers of the embryo form in a process called histogenesis, and the processes of neurulation and organogenesis follow. The embryo is referred to as a fetus in the later stages of prenatal development, usually taken to be at the beginning of the ninth week. In comparison to the embryo, the fetus has more recognizable external features, and a more complete set of developing organs. The entire process of embryogenesis involves coordinated spatial and temporal changes in gene expression, cell growth and cellular differentiation. A nearly identical process occurs in other species, especially among chordates.

Fertilization takes place when the spermatozoon has successfully entered the ovum and the two sets of genetic material carried by the gametes fuse together, resulting in the zygote (a single diploid cell). This usually takes place in the ampulla of one of the fallopian tubes. The zygote contains the combined genetic material carried by both the male and female gametes which consists of the 23 chromosomes from the nucleus of the ovum and the 23 chromosomes from the nucleus of the sperm. The 46 chromosomes undergo changes prior to the mitotic division which leads to the formation of the embryo having two cells.

Successful fertilization is enabled by three processes, which also act as controls to ensure species-specificity. The first is that of chemotaxis which directs the movement of the sperm towards the ovum. Secondly there is an adhesive compatibility between the sperm and the egg. With the sperm adhered to the ovum, the third process of acrosomal reaction takes place; the front part of the spermatozoon head is capped by an acrosome which contains digestive enzymes to break down the zona pellucida and allow its entry.[3] The entry of the sperm causes calcium to be released which blocks entry to other sperm cells. A parallel reaction takes place in the ovum called the zona reaction. This sees the release of cortical granules that release enzymes which digest sperm receptor proteins, thus preventing polyspermy. The granules also fuse with the plasma membrane and modify the zona pellucida in such a way as to prevent further sperm entry.

The beginning of the cleavage process is marked when the zygote divides through mitosis into two cells. This mitosis continues and the first two cells divide into four cells, then into eight cells and so on. Each division takes from 12 to 24 hours. The zygote is large compared to any other cell and undergoes cleavage without any overall increase in size. This means that with each successive subdivision, the ratio of nuclear to cytoplasmic material increases.[4] Initially the dividing cells, called blastomeres (blastos Greek for sprout), are undifferentiated and aggregated into a sphere enclosed within the membrane of glycoproteins (termed the zona pellucida) of the ovum. When eight blastomeres have formed they begin to develop gap junctions, enabling them to develop in an integrated way and co-ordinate their response to physiological signals and environmental cues.[5]

When the cells number around sixteen the solid sphere of cells within the zona pellucida is referred to as a morula [6] At this stage the cells start to bind firmly together in a process called compaction, and cleavage continues as cellular differentiation.

Cleavage itself is the first stage in blastulation, the process of forming the blastocyst. Cells differentiate into an outer layer of cells (collectively called the trophoblast) and an inner cell mass. With further compaction the individual outer blastomeres, the trophoblasts, become indistinguishable, and are still enclosed within the zona pellucida. This compaction serves to make the structure watertight since the cells will later secrete fluid. The inner mass of cells differentiate to become embryoblasts and polarise at one end. They close together and form gap junctions in order to facilitate cellular communication. This polarisation leaves a cavity, the blastocoel in which is now termed the blastocyst. (In animals other than mammals, this is called the blastula). The trophoblasts secrete fluid into the blastocoel. By this time the size of the blastocyst has increased which makes it 'hatch' through the zone pellucida which then disintegrates.[7][8]

The inner cell mass will give rise to the embryo proper, the amnion, yolk sac and allantois, while the fetal part of the placenta will form from the outer trophoblast layer. The embryo plus its membranes is called the conceptus and by this stage the conceptus is in the uterus. The zona pellucida ultimately disappears completely, and the now exposed cells of the trophoblast allow the blastocyst to attach itself to the endometrium, where it will implant. The formation of the hypoblast and epiblast occurs at the beginning of the second week, which are the two main layers of the bilaminar germ disc.[9] Either the inner cells embryoblast or the outer cells trophoblast will turn into two sub layers each other.[10] The inner cells will turn into the hypoblast layer that will surround the other layer called epiblast layer, and these layers will form the embryonic disc in which the embryo will develop.[9][10] The place where the embryo develops is called the amniotic cavity, which is the inside the disc.[9] Also the trophoblast will develop two sub-layers; the cytotrophoblast that is front of the syncytiotrophoblast that is inside of the endometrium.[9] Next, another layer called the exocoelomic membrane or Heusers membrane will appear and surround the cytotrophoblast, as well as the primitive yolk sac.[10] The syncytiotrophoblast will grow and will enter a phase called lacunar stage, in which some vacuoles will appear and be filled by blood in the following days.[9][10] The development of the yolk sac starts with the hypoblastic flat cells that form the exocoelomic membrane, which will coat the inner part of the cytotrophoblast to form the primitive yolk sac. An erosion of the endothelial lining of the maternal capillaries by the syncytiotrophoblastic cells of the sinusoids will form where the blood will begin to penetrate and flow through the trophoblast to give rise to the uteroplacental circulation.[11][12] Subsequently new cells derived from yolk sac will be established between trophoblast and exocelomic membrane and will give rise to extra-embryonic mesoderm, which will form cavities known as chorionic cavity.[10]

At the end of the second week of development, some cells of the trophoblast penetrate and form rounded columns into the syncytiotrophoblast. These columns are known as primary villi. At the same time, other migrating cells form into the exocelomic cavity, a new cavity named as secondary or definitive yolk, smaller in size than the primitive yolk sac.[10][11]

After ovulation, the endometrial lining becomes transformed into a secretory lining in preparation of accepting the embryo. It becomes thickened with its secretory glands becoming elongated, and is increasingly vascular. This lining of the uterine cavity (or womb), is now known as the decidua and it produces a great number of large decidual cells in its increased interglandular tissue. The trophoblast then differentiates into an inner layer, the cytotrophoblast and an outer layer, the syncytiotrophoblast. The cytotrophoblast contains cuboidal epithelial cells having cell boundaries and are the source of dividing cells and the syncytiotrophoblast is a layer without cell boundaries.

The syncytiotrophoblast implants the blastocyst in the decidual epithelium, by projections of chorionic villi forming the embryonic part of the placenta. The placenta develops once the blastocyst is implanted, and forms to connect the embryo to the uterine wall. The decidua here is termed the decidua basalis and lies between the blastocyst and the myometrium and forms the maternal part of the placenta. The implantation is assisted by hydrolytic enzymes that erode the epithelium. The syncytiotrophoblast also produces human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), a hormone that stimulates the release of progesterone from the corpus luteum. Progesterone enriches the uterus with a thick lining of blood vessels and capillaries so that it can oxygenate and sustain the developing embryo. The uterus liberates sugar from stored glycogen from its cells to nourish the embryo.[13] The villi begin to branch and contain blood vessels of the embryo. Other villi, called terminal or free villi, have the role of nutrient exchange. The embryo is joined to the trophoblastic shell by a narrow connecting stalk that develops into the umbilical cord to attach the placenta to the embryo.[10][14] Arteries in the decidua are remodelled to increase the maternal blood flow into the intervillous spaces of the placenta, allowing gas exchange to take place as well as the transfer of nutrients to the embryo. Waste products from the embryo will diffuse across the placenta.

As the syncytiotrophoblast starts to penetrate the uterine wall, the inner cell mass (embryoblast) also develops. The inner cell mass is the source of embryonic stem cells, which are pluripotent and can develop into any one of the three germ layer cells.

The embryoblast forms an embryonic disc which is a bilaminar disc of two layers, an upper layer the epiblast (primitive ectoderm), and a lower layer the hypoblast (primitive endoderm). The disc is stretched between what will become the amniotic cavity and the yolk sac. The epiblast is adjacent to the trophoblast and made of columnar cells; the hypoblast is closest to the blastocyst cavity, and made of cuboidal cells. The epiblast migrates away from the trophoblast downwards, forming the amniotic cavity, the lining of which is formed from amnioblasts developed from the epiblast. The hypoblast is pushed down and forms the yolk sac (exocoelomic cavity) lining. Some hypoblast cells migrate along the inner cytotrophoblast lining of the blastocoel, secreting an extracellular matrix along the way. These hypoblast cells and extracellular matrix are called Heuser's membrane (or exocoelomic membrane), and they cover the blastocoel to form the yolk sac (or exocoelomic cavity). Cells of the epiblast migrate along the outer edges of this reticulum and form the extraembryonic mesoderm, which makes it difficult to maintain the extraembryonic reticulum. Soon pockets form in the reticulum, which ultimately coalesce to form the chorionic cavity or extraembryonic coelom.

The primitive streak, a linear band of cells formed by the migrating epiblast, appears, and this marks the beginning of gastrulation, which takes place around the sixteenth day (week 3) after fertilisation. The process of gastrulation reorganises the two-layer embryo into a three-layer embryo, and also gives the embryo its specific head-to-tail, and front-to-back orientation, by way of the primitive streak which establishes bilateral symmetry. A primitive node (or primitive knot) forms in front of the primitive streak which is the organiser of neurulation. A primitive pit forms as a depression in the centre of the primitive node which connects to the notochord which lies directly underneath. The node has arisen from epiblasts of the amniotic cavity floor, and it is this node that induces the formation of the neural plate which serves as the basis for the nervous system. The neural plate will form opposite the primitive streak from ectodermal tissue which thickens and flattens into the neural plate. The epiblast in that region moves down into the streak at the location of the primitive pit where the process called ingression, which leads to the formation of the mesoderm takes place. This ingression sees the cells from the epiblast move into the primitive streak in an epithelial-mesenchymal transition; epithelial cells become mesenchymal stem cells, multipotent stromal cells that can differentiate into various cell types. The hypoblast is pushed out of the way and goes on to form the amnion.The epiblast keeps moving and forms a second layer, the mesoderm. The epiblast has now differentiated into the three germ layers of the embryo, so that the bilaminar disc is now a trilaminar disc, the gastrula.

The three germ layers are the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm, and are formed as three overlapping flat discs. It is from these three layers that all the structures and organs of the body will be derived through the processes of somitogenesis, histogenesis and organogenesis.[15] The embryonic endoderm is formed by invagination of epiblastic cells that migrate to the hypoblast, while the mesoderm is formed by the cells that develop between the epiblast and endoderm. In general, all germ layers will derive from the epiblast.[10][14] The upper layer of ectoderm will give rise to the outermost layer of skin, central and peripheral nervous systems, eyes, inner ear, and many connective tissues.[16] The middle layer of mesoderm will give rise to the heart and the beginning of the circulatory system as well as the bones, muscles and kidneys. The inner layer of endoderm will serve as the starting point for the development of the lungs, intestine, thyroid, pancreas and bladder.

Following ingression, a blastopore develops where the cells have ingressed, in one side of the embryo and it deepens to become the archenteron, the first formative stage of the gut. As in all deuterostomes, the blastopore becomes the anus whilst the gut tunnels through the embryo to the other side where the opening becomes the mouth. With a functioning digestive tube, gastrulation is now completed and the next stage of neurulation can begin.

Following gastrulation, the ectoderm gives rise to epithelial and neural tissue, and the gastrula is now referred to as the neurula. The neural plate that has formed as a thickened plate from the ectoderm, continues to broaden and its ends start to fold upwards as neural folds. Neurulation refers to this folding process whereby the neural plate is transformed into the neural tube, and this takes place during the fourth week. They fold, along a shallow neural groove which has formed as a dividing median line in the neural plate. This deepens as the folds continue to gain height, when they will meet and close together. The cells that migrate through the most cranial part of the primitive line form the paraxial mesoderm, which will give rise to the somitomeres that in the process of somitogenesis will differentiate into somites that will form the sclerotome, the syndetome,[17] the myotome and the dermatome to form cartilage and bone, tendons, dermis (skin), and muscle. The intermediate mesoderm gives rise to the urogenital tract and consists of cells that migrate from the middle region of the primitive line. Other cells migrate through the caudal part of the primitive line and form the lateral mesoderm, and those cells migrating by the most caudal part contribute to the extraembryonic mesoderm.[10][14]

The embryonic disc begins flat and round, but eventually elongates to have a wider cephalic part and narrow-shaped caudal end.[9] At the beginning, the primitive line extends in cephalic direction and 18 days after fertilization returns caudally until it disappears. In the cephalic portion, the germ layer shows specific differentiation at the beginning of the 4th week, while in the caudal portion it occurs at the end of the 4th week.[10] Cranial and caudal neuropores become progressively smaller until they close completely (by day 26) forming the neural tube.[18]

Late in the fourth week, the superior part of the neural tube flexes at the level of the future midbrainthe mesencephalon. Above the mesencephalon is the prosencephalon (future forebrain) and beneath it is the rhombencephalon (future hindbrain).

The optical vesicle (which eventually becomes the optic nerve, retina and iris) forms at the basal plate of the prosencephalon. The alar plate of the prosencephalon expands to form the cerebral hemispheres (the telencephalon) whilst its basal plate becomes the diencephalon. Finally, the optic vesicle grows to form an optic outgrowth.

Cranial neural crest cells migrate to the pharyngeal arches as neural stem cells, where they develop in the process of neurogenesis into neurons.

Haematopoietic stem cells that give rise to all the blood cells develop from the mesoderm.

The development of the organs starts during the third to eighth weeks of embryogenesis.

The heart is the first functional organ to develop and starts to beat and pump blood at around 21 or 22 days.[19] Cardiac myoblasts and blood islands in the splanchnopleuric mesenchyme on each side of the neural plate, give rise to the cardiogenic region.[10]:165This is a horseshoe-shaped area near to the head of the embryo. By day 19, following cell signalling, two strands begin to form as tubes in this region, as a lumen develops within them. These two endocardial tubes grow and by day 21 have migrated towards each other and fused to form a single primitive heart tube, the tubular heart. This is enabled by the folding of the embryo which pushes the tubes into the thoracic cavity.[20]

Also at the same time that the tubes are forming, vasculogenesis (the development of the circulatory system) has begun. This starts on day 18 with cells in the splanchnopleuric mesoderm differentiating into angioblasts that develop into flattened endothelial cells. These join to form small vesicles called angiocysts which join up to form long vessels called angioblastic cords. These cords develop into a pervasive network of plexuses in the formation of the vascular network. This network grows by the additional budding and sprouting of new vessels in the process of angiogenesis.[20]

The tubular heart quickly forms five distinct regions. From head to tail, these are the infundibulum, bulbus cordis, primitive ventricle, primitive atrium, and the sinus venosus. Initially, all venous blood flows into the sinus venosus, and is propelled from tail to head to the truncus arteriosus. This will divide to form the aorta and pulmonary artery; the bulbus cordis will develop into the right (primitive) ventricle; the primitive ventricle will form the left ventricle; the primitive atrium will become the front parts of the left and right atria and their appendages, and the sinus venosus will develop into the posterior part of the right atrium, the sinoatrial node and the coronary sinus.[19]

Cardiac looping begins to shape the heart as one of the processes of morphogenesis, and this completes by the end of the fourth week. Programmed cell death (apoptosis) is involved in this process, at the joining surfaces enabling fusion to take place.[20] In the middle of the fourth week, the sinus venosus receives blood from the three major veins: the vitelline, the umbilical and the common cardinal veins.

During the first two months of development, the interatrial septum begins to form. This septum divides the primitive atrium into a right and a left atrium. Firstly it starts as a crescent-shaped piece of tissue which grows downwards as the septum primum. The crescent shape prevents the complete closure of the atria allowing blood to be shunted from the right to the left atrium through the opening known as the ostium primum. This closes with further development of the system but before it does, a second opening (the ostium secundum) begins to form in the upper atrium enabling the continued shunting of blood.[20]

A second septum (the septum secundum) begins to form to the right of the septum primum. This also leaves a small opening, the foramen ovale which is continuous with the previous opening of the ostium secundum. The septum primum is reduced to a small flap that acts as the valve of the foramen ovale and this remains until its closure at birth. Between the ventricles the septum inferius also forms which develops into the muscular interventricular septum.[20]

From the third to the eighth week the face and neck develop.

In the fourth week limb development begins.

Toxic exposures during the germinal stage may cause prenatal death resulting in a miscarriage, but do not cause developmental defects. However, toxic exposures in the embryonic period can be the cause of major congenital malformations, since the precursors of the major organ systems are now developing.

Each cell of the preimplantation embryo has the potential to form all of the different cell types in the developing embryo. This cell potency means that some cells can be removed from the preimplantation embryo and the remaining cells will compensate for their absence. This has allowed the development of a technique known as preimplantation genetic diagnosis, whereby a small number of cells from the preimplantation embryo created by IVF, can be removed by biopsy and subjected to genetic diagnosis. This allows embryos that are not affected by defined genetic diseases to be selected and then transferred to the mother's uterus.

Sacrococcygeal teratomas, tumours formed from different types of tissue, that can form, are thought to be related to primitive streak remnants, which ordinarily disappear.[9][10][12]

Spina bifida a congenital disorder is the result of the incomplete closure of the neural tube.

Vertically transmitted infections can be passed from the mother to the unborn child at any stage of its development.

Hypoxia a condition of inadequate oxygen supply can be a serious consequence of a preterm or premature birth.

Representing different stages of embryogenesis

Early stage of the gastrulation process

Phase of the gastrulation process

Top of the form of the embryo

Establishment of embryo medium

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Human embryogenesis - Wikipedia

Biochemistry

History of biochemistry – Wikipedia

The history of biochemistry can be said to have started with the ancient Greeks who were interested in the composition and processes of life, although biochemistry as a specific scientific discipline has its beginning around the early 19th century.[1] Some argued that the beginning of biochemistry may have been the discovery of the first enzyme, diastase (today called amylase), in 1833 by Anselme Payen,[2] while others considered Eduard Buchner's first demonstration of a complex biochemical process alcoholic fermentation in cell-free extracts to be the birth of biochemistry.[3][4] Some might also point to the influential work of Justus von Liebig from 1842, Animal chemistry, or, Organic chemistry in its applications to physiology and pathology, which presented a chemical theory of metabolism,[1] or even earlier to the 18th century studies on fermentation and respiration by Antoine Lavoisier.[5][6]

The term biochemistry itself is derived from the combining form bio-, meaning "life", and chemistry. The word is first recorded in English in 1848,[7] while in 1877, Felix Hoppe-Seyler used the term (Biochemie in German) in the foreword to the first issue of Zeitschrift fr Physiologische Chemie (Journal of Physiological Chemistry) as a synonym for physiological chemistry and argued for the setting up of institutes dedicate to its studies.[8][9] Nevertheless, several sources cite German chemist Carl Neuberg as having coined the term for the new discipline in 1903,[10][11] and some credit it to Franz Hofmeister.[12]

The subject of study in biochemistry is the chemical processes in living organisms, and its history involves the discovery and understanding of the complex components of life and the elucidation of pathways of biochemical processes. Much of biochemistry deals with the structures and functions of cellular components such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and other biomolecules; their metabolic pathways and flow of chemical energy through metabolism; how biological molecules give rise to the processes that occur within living cells; it also focuses on the biochemical processes involved in the control of information flow through biochemical signalling, and how they relate to the functioning of whole organisms. Over the last 40 years the field has had success in explaining living processes such that now almost all areas of the life sciences from botany to medicine are engaged in biochemical research.

Among the vast number of different biomolecules, many are complex and large molecules (called polymers), which are composed of similar repeating subunits (called monomers). Each class of polymeric biomolecule has a different set of subunit types. For example, a protein is a polymer whose subunits are selected from a set of twenty or more amino acids, carbohydrates are formed from sugars known as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides, lipids are formed from fatty acids and glycerols, and nucleic acids are formed from nucleotides. Biochemistry studies the chemical properties of important biological molecules, like proteins, and in particular the chemistry of enzyme-catalyzed reactions. The biochemistry of cell metabolism and the endocrine system has been extensively described. Other areas of biochemistry include the genetic code (DNA, RNA), protein synthesis, cell membrane transport, and signal transduction.

In these regards, the study of biochemistry began when biology first began to interest societyas the ancient Chinese developed a system of medicine based on yin and yang, and also the five phases,[13] which both resulted from alchemical and biological interests. It began in the ancient Indian culture also with an interest in medicine, as they developed the concept of three humors that were similar to the Greek's four humours (see humorism). They also delved into the interest of bodies being composed of tissues. As in the majority of early sciences, the Islamic world greatly contributed to early biological advancements as well as alchemical advancements; especially with the introduction of clinical trials and clinical pharmacology presented in Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine.[14] On the side of chemistry, early advancements were heavily attributed to exploration of alchemical interests but also included: metallurgy, the scientific method, and early theories of atomism. In more recent times, the study of chemistry was marked by milestones such as the development of Mendeleev's periodic table, Dalton's atomic model, and the conservation of mass theory. This last mention has the most importance of the three due to the fact that this law intertwines chemistry with thermodynamics in an intercalated manner.

As early as the late 18th century and early 19th century, the digestion of meat by stomach secretions[15] and the conversion of starch to sugars by plant extracts and saliva were known. However, the mechanism by which this occurred had not been identified.[16]

In the 19th century, when studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast, Louis Pasteur concluded that this fermentation was catalyzed by a vital force contained within the yeast cells called ferments, which he thought functioned only within living organisms. He wrote that "alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells."[17]

Anselme Payen discovered in 1833 the first enzyme who called diastase[18] and in 1878 German physiologist Wilhelm Khne (18371900) coined the term enzyme, which comes from Greek "in leaven", to describe this process. The word enzyme was used later to refer to nonliving substances such as pepsin, and the word ferment used to refer to chemical activity produced by living organisms.

In 1897 Eduard Buchner began to study the ability of yeast extracts to ferment sugar despite the absence of living yeast cells. In a series of experiments at the University of Berlin, he found that the sugar was fermented even when there were no living yeast cells in the mixture.[19] He named the enzyme that brought about the fermentation of sucrose "zymase".[20] In 1907 he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his biochemical research and his discovery of cell-free fermentation". Following Buchner's example; enzymes are usually named according to the reaction they carry out. Typically the suffix -ase is added to the name of the substrate (e.g., lactase is the enzyme that cleaves lactose) or the type of reaction (e.g., DNA polymerase forms DNA polymers).

Having shown that enzymes could function outside a living cell, the next step was to determine their biochemical nature. Many early workers noted that enzymatic activity was associated with proteins, but several scientists (such as Nobel laureate Richard Willsttter) argued that proteins were merely carriers for the true enzymes and that proteins per se were incapable of catalysis. However, in 1926, James B. Sumner showed that the enzyme urease was a pure protein and crystallized it; Sumner did likewise for the enzyme catalase in 1937. The conclusion that pure proteins can be enzymes was definitively proved by Northrop and Stanley, who worked on the digestive enzymes pepsin (1930), trypsin and chymotrypsin. These three scientists were awarded the 1946 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.[21]

This discovery, that enzymes could be crystallized, meant that scientists eventually could solve their structures by x-ray crystallography. This was first done for lysozyme, an enzyme found in tears, saliva and egg whites that digests the coating of some bacteria; the structure was solved by a group led by David Chilton Phillips and published in 1965.[22] This high-resolution structure of lysozyme marked the beginning of the field of structural biology and the effort to understand how enzymes work at an atomic level of detail.

The term metabolism is derived from the Greek Metabolismos for "change", or "overthrow".[23] The history of the scientific study of metabolism spans 800 years. The earliest of all metabolic studies began during the early thirteenth century (1213-1288) by a Muslim scholar from Damascus named Ibn al-Nafis. al-Nafis stated in his most well-known work Theologus Autodidactus that "that body and all its parts are in a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment, so they are inevitably undergoing permanent change."[24] Although al-Nafis was the first documented physician to have an interest in biochemical concepts, the first controlled experiments in human metabolism were published by Santorio Santorio in 1614 in his book Ars de statica medecina.[25] This book describes how he weighed himself before and after eating, sleeping, working, sex, fasting, drinking, and excreting. He found that most of the food he took in was lost through what he called "insensible perspiration".

One of the most prolific of these modern biochemists was Hans Krebs who made huge contributions to the study of metabolism.[26] He discovered the urea cycle and later, working with Hans Kornberg, the citric acid cycle and the glyoxylate cycle.[27][28][29] These discoveries led to Krebs being awarded the Nobel Prize in physiology in 1953,[30] which was shared with the German biochemist Fritz Albert Lipmann who also codiscovered the essential cofactor coenzyme A.

In 1960, the biochemist Robert K. Crane revealed his discovery of the sodium-glucose cotransport as the mechanism for intestinal glucose absorption.[31] This was the very first proposal of a coupling between the fluxes of an ion and a substrate that has been seen as sparking a revolution in biology. This discovery, however, would not have been possible if it were not for the discovery of the molecule glucose's structure and chemical makeup. These discoveries are largely attributed to the German chemist Emil Fischer who received the Nobel Prize in chemistry nearly 60 years earlier.[32]

Since metabolism focuses on the breaking down (catabolic processes) of molecules and the building of larger molecules from these particles (anabolic processes), the use of glucose and its involvement in the formation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is fundamental to this understanding. The most frequent type of glycolysis found in the body is the type that follows the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas (EMP) Pathway, which was discovered by Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof, and Jakob Karol Parnas. These three men discovered that glycolysis is a strongly determinant process for the efficiency and production of the human body. The significance of the pathway shown in the adjacent image is that by identifying the individual steps in this process doctors and researchers are able to pinpoint sites of metabolic malfunctions such as pyruvate kinase deficiency that can lead to severe anemia. This is most important because cells, and therefore organisms, are not capable of surviving without proper functioning metabolic pathways.

Since then, biochemistry has advanced, especially since the mid-20th century, with the development of new techniques such as chromatography, X-ray diffraction, NMR spectroscopy, radioisotopic labelling, electron microscopy and molecular dynamics simulations. These techniques allowed for the discovery and detailed analysis of many molecules and metabolic pathways of the cell, such as glycolysis and the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle). The example of an NMR instrument shows that some of these instruments, such as the HWB-NMR, can be very large in size and can cost anywhere from a few hundred dollars to millions of dollars ($16 million for the one shown here).

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is the primary gene amplification technique that has revolutionized modern biochemistry. Polymerase chain reaction was developed by Kary Mullis in 1983.[33] There are four steps to a proper polymerase chain reaction: 1) denaturation 2) extension 3) insertion (of gene to be expressed) and finally 4) amplification of the inserted gene. These steps with simple illustrative examples of this process can be seen in the image below and to the right of this section. This technique allows for the copy of a single gene to be amplified into hundreds or even millions of copies and has become a cornerstone in the protocol for any biochemist that wishes to work with bacteria and gene expression. PCR is not only used for gene expression research but is also capable of aiding laboratories in diagnosing certain diseases such a lymphomas, some types of leukemia, and other malignant diseases that can sometimes puzzle doctors. Without polymerase chain reaction development, there are many advancements in the field of bacterial study and protein expression study that would not have come to fruition.[34] The development of the theory and process of polymerase chain reaction is essential but the invention of the thermal cycler is equally as important because the process would not be possible without this instrument. This is yet another testament to the fact that the advancement of technology is just as crucial to sciences such as biochemistry as is the painstaking research that leads to the development of theoretical concepts.

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History of biochemistry - Wikipedia

Neuroscience

Ph.D. in Neuroscience – University of Nevada, Reno

An interdisciplinary program with 50 faculty members from 10 University departments, the neuroscience Ph.D. gives students a strong foundation across key areas of brain science, as well as advanced training in specialized subdisciplines.

Admissions cycles: Fall, Spring Application deadlines: Dec. 15, Sept. 15 Assistantship types available: Contact department Graduate directors: Michael Webster, Grant Mastick, Jim Kenyon

This program aims to develop the next generation of leading neuroscience academics and researchers. Students receive advanced, specialized training to develop their critical thinking and research skills in preparation for a wide range of possible career avenues, either in academia or the public or private sectors.

The program trains students to possess three key abilities:

Students tailor their curriculum to meet their research interests and professional goals. They may select from a diverse variety of courses within the program, including offerings in biology, computer science, electrical and biomedical engineering, microbiology and immunology, pharmacology, philosophy, psychiatry, psychology, physiology and more.

During the first two years of the program, students complete a track of foundation courses and research experience. They then specialize within a chosen subdiscipline for their research and training in subsequent years, culminating in their dissertation.

Program requirements include coursework in:

Possible elective course subjects include:

Neuroscience faculty members at the University of Nevada, Reno encourage the academic and professional development of students as independent researchers. Working closely with advisers and program directors, students develop a specialized, independent program of study in neuroscience research methodologies.

All applicants to the Integrative Neuroscience Graduate Program -- home to neuroscience Ph.D. -- must meet the admissions standards of the Graduate School. Additionally, they must also submit with their graduate application the following materials:

The program accepts applications each fall. The deadline for completed applications is Feb. 1.

Please contact the department.

You can apply now if you are ready to begin at the University. If you would like to learn more about the program, please contact:

Michael Webster, Ph.D. Professor of Psychology, Co-Director Neuroscience Graduate Program (775) 682-8691 mwebster@unr.edu

Grant Mastick, Ph.D. Professor, Co-Director Neuroscience Graduate Program, Co-Director Cell Biology Center for Biomedical Research Excellence (775) 784-6168 gmastick@unr.edu

Jim Kenyon, Ph.D. Professor, Co-Director Neuroscience Graduate Program (775) 682-8832 jlkenyon@medicine.nevada.edu

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Ph.D. in Neuroscience - University of Nevada, Reno

Neuroscience

Department of Neuroscience | Ohio State Neurological Departments

The Department of Neuroscience is part of Ohio State's multidisciplinary Neurological Institute. The department is closely aligned with the Neuroscience Graduate Program, which includes faculty from Neuroscience who work to advance our understanding of the brain and behavior. Our focus is on cross-disciplinary education and scientific study of nervous systems, including neurological and psychiatric conditions.

Were a top-ranked center for fundamental, translational and clinical research conducted by faculty, fellows and students. Unique research opportunities include a Neuroscience Center Core Program made possible by a grant from the National Institute for Neurological Disorders and Stroke. This supports core facilities and services in areas such as mouse and zebrafish genetics, nerve injury, rodent behavior, neurophysiology, muscle physiology, xenografting and small animal imaging.

Department resources include access to more than 25 state-of-the-art medical center research facilities and services. These involve proteomics, microarray, nucleic acid, comparative pathology and mouse phenotyping, analytical cytometry and biostatistics.

Support for clinical and translational research is provided by the Center for Clinical and Translational Science, funded by a National Institutes of Health (NIH) Clinical Translational Science Award.

Link:
Department of Neuroscience | Ohio State Neurological Departments

Neuroscience

Neuroscience – William Beaumont Health System

A concussion is a brain injury caused by a bump or blow to the head, and is the most common type of traumatic brain injury in both adults and children. Concussions range from minor to major and are usually diagnosed based on symptoms and severity of head trauma.

The Beaumont Concussion Clinic offers comprehensive, specialized acute care for children and adults who experience a concussion.

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Neuroscience - William Beaumont Health System