Genetics

Climate, not just genetics, shaped your nose, study says – CNN

There's a great variety in nose variation from person to person, yet if you look at different ethnic populations, you will see differences across groups. For example, the distance between the wings of the nose, also known as "nasal alare," are larger in people of West African, South Asian and East Asian ancestry than in people of European ancestry.

So it's easy to understand why many people, past and present, "have this sense that human populations are very distinct and have been separated for a long time," said Mark D. Shriver, lead author of the study and a professor of anthropology at Penn State University. Still, he noted, "human populations have always split and come back together, split and come back together, so there's no separate origin."

In fact, genetic differences between various population groups is not that great. Using noses as just one example, said Shriver, "the surface, the appearance of people in different populations is much greater than what the genetic differences show on average."

To answer this question, Shriver and his colleagues selected 2,637 individuals from a database of about 10,000.

They selected people from four populations: North Europeans, South Asians, East Asians and West Africans. Shriver and his team looked at 3-D photos of each individual and examined the width of the nostrils, the distance between nostrils, the height of the nose, nose ridge length, nose protrusion, external area of the nose and area of the nostrils.

"So we have multiple cameras that image a person's face, either simultaneously or in a carefully constructed series, and from those multiple angles, you can derive the shape of a face as a point cloud," Shriver said. The resulting 3-D image allows you to "take careful measurements usually calibrated down to a tenth of a millimeter," he said.

Through complex analysis of the data, the researchers learned that the width of the nostrils and the base of the nose measurements differed across populations more than could be accounted for by genetic drift.

Genetic drift refers to the fact that some people leave behind more descendants (and therefore more genes) than others just by chance and not necessarily because they are healthier or better survivors.

If not genetic drift, then natural selection must have played a hand in the evolution of nose shape in humans. Natural selection refers to the fact that people better adapted to their environment are the ones who survive and reproduce, leaving behind their genes.

"Natural selection is usually divided into ecological selection, simple survival and sexual selection aspects of mate choice and competition," Shriver said.

Exploring how local climate might have contributed to differences in nose shape, the researchers looked at the distribution of nasal traits in relation to local temperatures and humidity and found that the width of the nostrils strongly correlated with temperature and absolute humidity.

Your nose and nasal cavity function as your personal air conditioner, warming and moistening air before it reaches your lower respiratory tract. In the late 1800s, British anatomist and anthropologist Arthur Thomson observed that long and thin noses occurred in dry, cold areas, while short and wide noses occurred in hot, humid areas.

Since narrower nostrils allow the nose to humidify and warm the air more efficiently, this was probably essential in cold, dry climates; people with narrower nostrils probably fared better and had more offspring than people with wider nostrils in locations farther from the equator.

"Some of the nose variation is really the climate; some of it's not," Shriver said, noting that sexual selection played a role, as well, with people choosing mates based on notions of beauty, such as finding a smaller nose more attractive.

"The fact that we find such big male-female differences in all of the nose traits is also consistent with sexual selection having a hand," he said. Still ecological selection and sexual selection often reinforce each other, and the study provides evidence that both types of selection have helped shape the nose.

The finding might have some practical application, providing important clues in criminal investigations, Shriver said.

"We didn't get into it in this paper, but (the research) is highlighting some of the variety of data we have," he said. He and his colleagues have been creating 3-D photos and collecting measurements and other data on thousands of people for over 12 years.

"The practical application is something we call 'forensic molecular photo fitting': making a phenotypic prediction of a person from evidentiary DNA," Shriver said.

In other words, if a crime victim's identity isn't known, Shriver can deduce what the person might look like based on DNA from their skeletal remains. The appearance of a perpetrator might be based on DNA from some material left behind at the crime scene.

"More than half of my research effort, the end product, will be molecular photo fitting," said Shriver, who offered one example of why there is interest in this application.

"If you can make a phenotypic prediction, maybe that face or even that genetic ancestry can be quite helpful in directing the investigation," Shriver said. "A lot of good detectives and police officers really understand the range of variation within different populations."

Despite grants from the US Department of Defense and other funding sources, some scientists remain skeptical.

"Although interesting, I think that the study oversimplifies the possible adaptation that has occurred by simply evaluating the external shape," said Dr. Stella Lee, an assistant professor at University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, who was not involved in the research. "The main limitation of this study is that only the external shape of the nose was analyzed rather than actual nasal airflow, humidity and internal nasal measurements."

"The inside of the nose is lined by a multitude of cilia (which look like a shag carpet under the microscope) that are constantly providing clearance of mucus, pathogens and inhaled particulates to the back of the nose by beating in a rhythmic motion," Lee said. "It is amazing that our noses can differentiate between potentially harmful pathogens and innocuous agents."

Still, Lee noted that the authors themselves acknowledged the possibility of oversimplification.

Seth M. Weinberg, an associate professor at the University of Pittsburgh, said anthropologists have long been interested in the nose as one example of human adaptation.

"This study advances our understanding of the complex picture of human facial diversity," said Weinberg, who had no role in this project, though he has collaborated with several of the authors.

The research attempts to connect the "shape of the external human nose to geographically relevant ecological factors" operating throughout our evolutionary past up to the modern day, he said.

"Researchers have only recently begun to uncover the genetic basis of traits like nasal shape in humans," Weinberg said. "Studies like this can help us to frame those genetic findings within a broader context."

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Genetics

Tame the hype: Is medical genetics plagued by unfilled promises? – Genetic Literacy Project

Recently, I read an article promising that medical genetics willmake medicine predictive and personalized through detailed knowledge of the patients genome.

The thing is, the article is from 1940Looking back, we knew almost exactly nothing about the genetic mechanisms of human disease.

While inflated medical promises are hardly peculiar to molecular medicine, that field does seem particularly prone to breathless rhetoric.

Bluster, overstatement and aspirations masquerading as hard targets have no single cause. One reason, surely, is the heady sense of impending omnipotence that accompanies major technological and scientific advances. Charles Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection, the cracking of the genetic code, [and] CRISPR all were followed by grandiose claims of the imminent total control over lifes fundamental processes.

Every generation of scientists looks back and shakes its collective head in condescending disbelief at how little the previous generation knew, rarely stopping to reflect that the next generation will do the same.

Its time to push back. One way is to hold scientists, philanthropists and the press accountable[We should fund]science liberally, but reward knowledge more than market value.Encourage science literacy, not just cheer-leading. And teach skepticism of technology, medicine and the media.

The GLP aggregated and excerpted this blog/article to reflect the diversity of news, opinion, and analysis. Read full, original post:Genetic research: A money laundering business or a gateway to miracles?

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Tame the hype: Is medical genetics plagued by unfilled promises? - Genetic Literacy Project

Embryology

First ‘three-parent babies’ could be born in UK this year as docs secure licence to perform controversial IVF – The Sun

THE first three-parent babies could be born in the UK this year after doctors were given the go-ahead to start performing controversial new IVF therapy.

The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority (HFEA) has granted a licence to a team at the University of Newcastle, who have pioneered the new treatment.

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HFEA chair Sally Cheshire announced the development in her opening speech at the authoritys annual conference this morning.

She said: This significant decision represents the culmination of many years of hard work by researchers, clinical experts, and regulators, who collectively paved the way for Parliament to change the law in 2015, to permit the use of such techniques.

Patients will now be able to apply individually to the HFEA to undergo mitochondrial donation treatment at Newcastle, which will be life-changing for them, as they seek to avoid passing on serious genetic diseases to future generations.

The treatment has the potential to allow couples who carry, and therefore risk passing on, deadly genetic diseases to conceive healthy babies.

Though it is dubbed a three-parent treatment,babies born as a result of the therapy would only inherit personality traits, those that affect appearance and other features that make a person unique, from theirmum and dad not the donor.

The move comes after the HFEA gave the therapy, called mitochondrial donation, the green light in December last year.

Speaking after that historical decision, MrsCheshire said: This is life-changing for those families.

But critics have warned it marks the first step towards so-called designer babies.

The NHS is now poised to spend 8million offering the IVF to 25 couples.

The licence is the first stage of the process, and gives the Newcastle clinic the green light to perform the procedure.

The second stage requires each patient application to be individually approved by the HFEA, they confirmed.

Earlier this year the first baby to be born using the technique was welcomed into the world by his parents in Mexico.

The baby boy was born in April after his parents, who are from Jordan, were treated by a team of American specialists in the country.

Scientists at the University of Newcastle, which has been at the forefront of pioneering the treatment, have already lined up women to have the therapy, known as mitochondrial replacement therapy.

The team hopes to treat up to 25women a year with NHS funding.

Prof Sir Doug Turnbull, who has led the team at Newcastle in developing the new IVF therapy, said he is delighted for patients.

This will allow women with mitochondria DNA mutations the opportunity for more reproductive choice, he said.

Mitochondria diseases can be devastating for families affected and this is a momentous day for patients who have tirelessly campaigned for this decision.

He said in December, his team will aim to treat up to 25 carefully selected patients each year, and would offer follow-up care for any children born.

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Fertility experts across the UK also welcomed the development.

Professor Adam Balen, chair of the British Fertility Society, said the granting of a licence to the Newcastle centre marks a historical step towards eradicating genetic diseases.

The decision is the latest step in a 10-year process from the first proof of concept studies.

Dr Jeremy Farrar, director of the Wellcome Trust, who funds the centre for mitochondrial research at Newcastle said: Affected couples in the UK who have dreamt of having a baby free of mitochondrial disease will have an option open to them for the first time, he said.

Now we must give the first patients and their doctors the time and space to discuss the next steps with the patience, sensitivity and scientific rigour that they have displayed throughout.

Fertility clinics in the UK will not automatically be given the right to offer the treatment.

Rather, each clinic will have to apply to the HFEA for permission to do so.

The Sun

Prof Balen said given their pivotal role in developing the treatment the Centre for Life at Newcastle University is likely to be the only centre approved to offer the therapy.

The pioneering therapy aims to prevent potentially fatal diseases being passed from parents to their offspring.

Babies receivingmitochondrial replacement therapy would receive a tiny amount of DNA from a third person besides their mother and father.

Fertility specialists carrying out the treatment will aim to replace abnormal genes in themitochondria small structures that are found in every human cell.

Mitochondria are small structures found in our cells. They generate energy that is used to power every part of our body. Mitochondria have their own DNA, which only controls mitochondrial function and energy production, according to the Wellcome Trust. This is completely separate from our nuclear DNA, which is what makes us who we are, governing our appearance and personality. Mitochondrial disease can be fatal, affecting multiple organs. It includes diabetes, heart problems, epilepsy and stroke-like incidents, and in serious cases death. Mitochondrial DNA disease is passed from mother to baby. The new mitochondrial donation technique, uses DNA from the mitochondria of a healthy donor, the nucleus of a mothers egg and a fathers sperm to create an embryo. The technique allows for those women who carry potentially fatal genetic mutations to have healthy babies. As the nuclear DNA is not altered, mitochondrial donation will not affect a childs appearance or personality or any other features that make a person unique. It simply allows for a child to be free of mitochondrial disease.

Source: The Wellcome Trust

To do so involves taking the DNA from themothers egg that bears thefaulty genes, and transferring it into a donor egg, with healthy mitochondria.

Because the nucleus from the mothers egg is used the technique does not affect the babys appearance, personality, or other traits that make a person unique.

It simply allows the mitochondria which only controls a cells energy production to function normally, allowing a child to be born free of mitochondrial disease, which can prove fatal.

Mitochondria only hold around 0.1per cent of a persons DNA, which is always inherited from the mother and has no influence over individual characteristics.

Alamy

But faulty mitochondrial DNA can lead to a wide range of potentially fatal conditions affecting vital organs, muscles, vision, growth and mental ability.

In theory, mitochondrial replacement can not only prevent a child developing inherited diseases, but also protect future generations.

Last year, the UK became the first country in the world to legalise mitochondrial replacement after MPs and peers voted in favour of allowing it.

Critics say the technique is not fool-proof and small numbers of faulty mitochondria may still be carried over into the child.

They also argue that unforeseen problems might occur once the procedure is used to create human babies.

For instance, replacing the DNA might have more of an impact on personal traits than has been envisaged.

Dr David King, from the watchdog group Human Genetics Alert, said the HFEA had approved experiments on babies using the technology that was dangerous and medically unnecessary.

He accused experts backing the treatments of shameless emotional blackmail and scientific misrepresentations.

Dr King added: This decision opens the door to the world of GM (genetically modified) designer babies.

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First 'three-parent babies' could be born in UK this year as docs secure licence to perform controversial IVF - The Sun

Cell Biology

Light Offers New Way to Control Cell Biology – R & D Magazine

Biochemists have seen the light in developing a new way to control biology at the cellular level.

Researchers at the University of Alberta have developed a tool called a photocleavable protein that breaks into two pieces when exposed to light, allowing scientists to study and manipulate activity inside cells in new and different ways.

The scientists first used the photocleavable protein to link cellular proteins to inhibitors in a process known as caging, preventing the cellular proteins from performing their usual function.

"By shining light into the cell, we can cause the photocleavable protein to break, removing the inhibitor and uncaging the protein within the cell," lead author Robert Campbell, professor in the Department of Chemistry, said in a statement.

Once the protein is uncaged, it can begin to perform its normal function inside the cell.

The tool is relatively easy to use and widely applicable for other research that involves controlling processes inside a cell.

According to Campbell, the power of light-sensitive proteins is that they can be used to study the inner workings of any living cell. For example, ontogenetic tools are widely used to activate brain activity in mice.

"We could use the photocleavable protein to study single bacteria, yeast, human cells in the lab or even whole animals such as zebrafish or mice," Campbell said. "To put these proteins inside an animal, we simply splice the gene for the protein into DNA and insert it into the cells using established techniques."

The research team is making the gene for the photocleavable on Addgenea global archive and depository of molecular biology resources.

"We want to provide new ways to learn about cell biology," Campbell said. "I see countless potential applications for research and future investigationfrom looking at which cells become which tissues in development biology, to investigating the possibilities of gene-editing technology."

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Cell Biology

Fat cells step in to help liver during fasting – Medical Xpress

March 17, 2017 A UT Southwestern study determined that the metabolite uridine helps the body regulate glucose. This graphic depicts how the bodys fat cell-liver-uridine axis works to maintain energy balance. Credit: UT Southwestern Medical Center

How do mammals keep two biologically crucial metabolites in balance during times when they are feeding, sleeping, and fasting? The answer may require rewriting some textbooks.

In a study published today in Science, UT Southwestern Medical Center researchers report that fat cells "have the liver's back," so to speak, to maintain tight regulation of glucose (blood sugar) and uridine, a metabolite the body uses in a range of fundamental processes such as building RNA molecules, properly making proteins, and storing glucose as energy reserves. Their study may have implications for several diseases, including diabetes, cancer, and neurological disorders.

Metabolites are substances produced by a metabolic process, such as glucose generated in the metabolism of complex sugars and starches, or amino acids used in the biosynthesis of proteins.

"Like glucose, every cell in the body needs uridine to stay alive. Glucose is needed for energy, particularly in the brain's neurons. Uridine is a basic building block for a lot of things inside the cell," said Dr. Philipp Scherer, senior author of the study and Director of UT Southwestern's Touchstone Center for Diabetes Research.

"Biology textbooks indicate that the liver produces uridine for the circulatory system," said Dr. Scherer, also Professor of Internal Medicine and Cell Biology. "But what we found is that the liver serves as the primary producer of this metabolite only in the fed state. In the fasted state, the body's fat cells take over the production of uridine."

Basically, this method of uridine production can be viewed as a division of labor. Researchers found that during fasting, the liver is busy producing glucose and so fat cells take over the role of producing uridine for the bloodstream. These findings were replicated in human, mouse, and rat studies.

Although uridine has many roles, this study is the first to report that fat cells produce plasma uridine during fasting and that a fat cell-liver-uridine axis regulates the body's energy balance.

Study lead author Dr. Yingfeng Deng, Assistant Professor of Internal Medicine, found that blood uridine levels go up during fasting and down when feeding. During feeding, the liver reduces uridine levels by secreting uridine into bile, which is transferred to the gallbladder and then sent to the gut, where it helps in the absorption of nutrients.

"It turns out that having uridine in your gut helps you absorb glucose; therefore uridine helps in glucose regulation," Dr. Scherer said.

The uridine in the blood works through the hypothalamus in the brain to affect another tightly regulated system body temperature, Dr. Scherer added. It appears that only uridine made by fat cells reduces body temperature, he said.

Among the study's other key findings:

Blood uridine levels are elevated during fasting and drop rapidly during feeding. Excess uridine is released through the bile.

The liver is the predominant uridine biosynthesis organ, contributing to blood uridine levels in the fed state.

The fat cells dominate uridine biosynthesis and blood levels in the fasted state.

The fasting-induced rise in uridine is linked to a drop in core body temperature driven by a reduction in the metabolic rate.

In dietary studies, the researchers found that prolonged exposure to a high-fat diet blunted the effects of fasting on lowering body temperature, an effect also associated with obesity. Further testing indicated those findings were due to the reduced elevation in uridine in response to fasting, said Dr. Deng, also a member of the Touchstone Diabetes Center.

Future research questions include studying the effects of feeding-induced reductions in uridine levels in organs that rely heavily on uridine from plasma, such as the heart, and whether bariatric surgery affects blood uridine levels.

"Our studies reveal a direct link between temperature regulation and metabolism, indicating that a uridine-centered model of energy balance may pave the way for future studies on uridine balance and how this process is dysregulated in the diabetic state," Dr. Scherer said.

Explore further: Size matters when it comes to keeping blood sugar levels in check

More information: Yingfeng Deng et al. An adipo-biliary-uridine axis that regulates energy homeostasis, Science (2017). DOI: 10.1126/science.aaf5375

How do mammals keep two biologically crucial metabolites in balance during times when they are feeding, sleeping, and fasting? The answer may require rewriting some textbooks.

Daily screen time of three or more hours is linked to several risk factors associated with the development of diabetes in children, finds research published online in the Archives of Disease in Childhood.

Jason Dyck has long believed in the beneficial properties of resveratrola powerful antioxidant produced by some plants to protect against environmental stresses. The professor of pediatrics at the University of Alberta ...

The age at which girls start menstruating could flag a later risk of diabetes during pregnancy, according to a University of Queensland study

Short bursts of high-intensity exercise could help people with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease reduce their risk of type 2 diabetes.

A diet designed to imitate the effects of fasting appears to reverse diabetes by reprogramming cells, a new USC-led study shows.

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Biochemistry

Biochemistry & Analytical Biochemistry – omicsonline.org

Index Copernicus Value: 85.79

Journal of Biochemistry & Analytical Biochemistry is an academic journal providing an opportunity to researchers and scientist to explore the advanced and latest research developments in the field of Biochemistry. Journal of Biochemistry & Analytical Biochemistry is of highest standards in terms of quality and concentrates on the biological chemistry that are prevalent in unique chemical processes. This Journal covers all areas of the life sciences from botany to medicine that are engaged in biochemical research. Biochemistry deals with the structures, functions and interactions of biological macromolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and lipids, which provide the structure of cells and perform many of the functions associated with life.

Journal of Biochemistry & Analytical Biochemistry is a scholarly Open Access journal and aims to publish the most complete and reliable source of information on the advanced and very latest research topics.

Biochemistry & Analytical Biochemistry is a peer reviewed scientific journal known for rapid dissemination of high-quality research. This Biochemistry Journal with high impact factor offers an open access platform to the authors in academia and industry to publish their novel research. It serves the International Scientific Community with its standard research publications.

The journal is using Editorial Manager System for quality in review process. Editorial Manager is an online manuscript submission, review and tracking systems. Review process is performed by the editorial board members of Journal of Biochemistry and Analytical Biochemistry or outside experts; at least two independent reviewers approval followed by editor approval is required for acceptance of any citable manuscript. Authors may submit manuscripts and track their progress through the system, hopefully to publication. Reviewers can download manuscripts and submit their opinions to the editor. Editors can manage the whole submission/review/revise/publish process.

Biochemistry is for everyone. It is the central science to both fish biology and fish processing. Fishery biochemistry is considered a branch under veterinary biochemistry providing Proper knowledge on the biochemical composition of fish finds application in several The Biochemistry of Fish - Annual Reviews,The Journal of Fish Biology - fsbi.org.uk, Fish Physiology and Biochemistry,areas. Fish is an easily perishable commodity and deterioration in quality is due to the changes taking place to the various constituents likeproteins, lipids etc.

Related journals toFishery biochemistry

Biochemistry & Analytical Biochemistry,Poultry, Fisheries & Wildlife Sciences,Fisheries and Aquaculture Journal,Journal of Fisheries & Livestock Production,Fish Physiology and Biochemistry, The Biochemistry of Fish - Annual Reviews, The Journal of Fish Biology , Journal of Northwest Atlantic Fishery Science, Archive of Fishery and Marine Research, Aquaculture Journals.

Preparative biochemistry deals with all aspects of preparative techniques in biochemistry, including synthetic methods, production or manufacturing, separation,isolation, and purification of materials of biochemical at the laboratory, pilot, and production scale levels.

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Biochemistry & Analytical Biochemistry,Journal of Diabetes & Metabolism,Biomolecular Research & Therapeutics,Biochemistry & Physiology: Open Access,Preparative biochemistry, Preparative Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Preparative Biochemistry & Biotechnology (Prep Biochem Biotechnol), Journal of Chromatography A, Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology: Genomics and Proteomics.

Soil Biochemistry is the branch of soil science which ceals with formation and decomposition of soil organic matter, biochemical reactions of Carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, Phosphorous, metals andxenobioticsin soils, and biochemistry of the plant-root rhizosphere. Soil Biochemical reactions mainly concern on the organic fraction, though it is made up of 55 of total soil volume.

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Biochemistry & Analytical Biochemistry,Journal of Environmental & Analytical Toxicology,Journal of Pollution Effects & Control,Journal of Plant Biochemistry & Physiology,Soil Biology & Biochemistry, Biology and Fertility of Soils, Soil Biology and Biochemistry - SciRev, Indian Journal of Agricultural Biochemistry, Journal of soil science and plant nutrition.

Biochemistry of the blood gives us an indication of what is happening with in the body. When different tissues are damaged the damaged cells release specific enzymes which our equipment detects as abnormal levels. This then helps localise the problem. Also if certain organs are not eliminating certain waste products this can tell us they are not functioning properly.

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Biochemistry & Analytical Biochemistry,Journal of Leukemia,Journal of Bone Marrow Research,Journal of Blood Disorders & Transfusion,Blood Journal, The Ukrainian Biochemical Journal, Journal of Blood Disorders & Transfusion, Journal of Blood Medicine, Open Journal of Blood Diseases, Indian Journal of Hematology and Blood Transfusion.

The Food Biochemistry gathering plans to enhance understanding of detailed composition of foods, especially food components that have beneficial effects on human health.The Food Biochemistry include utilization of modern chemical and biochemical analytical methods offoodcomponents and their reactions, model systems to study their reactions and efficient statistical tools for data analysis to get the maximum informative value.

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Carbohydrates are carbon compounds that contain large quantities of hydroxyl groups. Carbohydrates also can combine with lipid to form glycolipids or with protein to form glycoproteins. Carbohydrates are made up of a 1:2:1 ratio of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen (CH2O)n. carbohydrates are for structural purposes, such ascellulose(which composes plants' cell walls) and chitin (a major component of insect exoskeletons).

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Proteins are composed of a linear polymer of amino acids. Amino acids are molecules containing an amine group (NH3), a carboxylic acid group(R-C=O-OH) and a side-chain (usually denoted as R) that varies between different amino acids. They are particularly important in biochemistry, where the term usually refers to alpha-amino acids. Proteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form in a biologically functional way.

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Pesticide Biochemistry deals with the mode of action of plant protection agents such as insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, and similar compounds, including nonlethal pest control agents, biosynthesis of pheromones, hormones, and plant resistance agents. It mainly emphasizes on Biochemistry and Physiology of Comparative toxicity, Mode of action,Pathophysiology, Plant growth regulators, Resistance, Other effects of pesticides on both parasites and hosts.

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Cellular and Molecular Biology Biochemistry is the study of the molecular nature of living organisms leading to an understanding of the biochemical control of life processes. It mainly focuses on the rapid changes in cytoskeletal proteins, protein kinases, membrane lipids, and small ions that accompany extracellular signals. This includes a wide range of topics from the structure and function of single molecules to the integrated molecular control of entire cells and organisms.

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The membranes form the barriers that separate the inside from the outside of living cells and that define organelles within cells. It focuses simplified self-assembled model membranes of lipids and proteins to membranes of living cells, and by using different complementary approaches, including molecular biology, chemical synthesis, analytical tools and advanced biophysical methods.

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Abiomoleculeis any molecule that is present in living organisms, including large macromolecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, and nucleic acids, as well as small molecules such as primary metabolites, secondary metabolites, and natural products. There are thousands of different types of molecules in a cell. A diverse range of biomolecules exist, including Small molecules Monomers, oligomers and polymers.

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Biochemistry & Analytical Biochemistry - omicsonline.org

Anatomy

Anatomy – Tips and Advice for Studying

What Is Anatomy?

Anatomy is the study of the structure of living organisms. This subdiscipline of biology can be further categorized into the study of large scale anatomical structures (gross anatomy) and the study of microscopic anatomical structures (microscopic anatomy). Human anatomy deals with anatomical structures of the human body, including cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. Anatomy is always linked to physiology, the study of how biological processes function in living organisms.

Therefore it is not enough to be able to identify a structure, its function must also be understood.

The study of human anatomy gives us a better understanding of the structures of the body and how they work. When taking a basic anatomy course, your goal should be to learn and understand the structures and functions of the major body systems. It is important to remember that organ systems don't just exist as individual units. Each system depends on the others, either directly or indirectly, to keep the body functioning normally. It is also important to be able to identify the major cells, tissues, and organs being studied and to know how they function.

Studying anatomy involves lots of memorization. For instance, the human body contains 206 bones and over 600 muscles. Learning these structures requires time, effort, and good memorization skills. The following tips will help make learning and memorizing body structures easier.

The most important thing to understand when studying anatomy is the terminology. Using standard anatomical terminology ensures that anatomists have a common method of communicating to avoid confusion when identifying structures. Knowing anatomical directional terms and body planes for instance, enables you to describe the locations of structures in relation to other structures or locations in the body. Learning the common prefixes and suffixes used in anatomy and biology is also helpful. For example, if you are studying the brachiocephalic artery, you can figure out its function by knowing the affixes in the name. The affix brachio- refers to the upper arm and cephal refers to the head. If you have memorized that an artery is a blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart, you can determine that the brachiocephalic artery is a blood vessel that carries blood from the heart to the head and arm regions of the body.

Study aids are very useful when studying anatomy. Believe it or not, anatomy coloring books are one of the best ways to learn and memorize structures and their location. The Anatomy Coloring Book is a popular choice, but other coloring books work as well. Anatomy flash cards, like Netter's Anatomy Flash Cards and Mosby's Anatomy & Physiology Study and Review Cards are recommended as well. Flash cards are valuable for reviewing information and are not meant to be a substitute for anatomy texts. Acquiring a good complementary text, such as Netter's Atlas of Human Anatomy, is a must for higher level anatomy courses and those interested in or already attending medical school. These resources provide detailed illustrations and pictures of various anatomical structures.

I can't state it enough, to really make sure you comprehend the material, you must constantly review what you have learned. It is vital that you attend any and all anatomy review sessions given by your instructor. Be sure to always take practice quizzes before taking any test or quiz. Get together with a study group and quiz each other on the material. If you are taking an anatomy course with a lab, be sure that you prepare for what you are going to be studying before lab class. The main thing you want to avoid is falling behind. With the volume of information that is covered in most anatomy courses, it is important that you stay ahead and know what you need to know, before you need to know it.

Organisms are arranged in a hierarchical structure. Cells compose tissues of the body, which can be categorized into four primary types. These tissue types are epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, connective tissue, and nervous tissue. Tissues in turn form organs of the body. Examples of body organs include the brain, heart, kidneys, lungs, liver, pancreas, thymus, and thyroid. Organ systems are formed from groups of organs and tissues working in conjunction to perform necessary functions for the survival of the organism. Examples of organ systems include the circulatory system, digestive system, endocrine system, nervous system, lymphatic system, skeletal system, and reproductive system.

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Anatomy - Tips and Advice for Studying

Anatomy

Anatomy

The upper extremity is a term used to define the upper limb. This includes the shoulder, arm, forearm, wrist and hand. The hand is a very complex part of the body, and all of the parts of the upper extremity are essential to functioning hands.

Within the upper extremity, there are bones, joints, muscles, nerves, vessels and tendons that tie all of the parts together.Learn more about the anatomy of the upper extremity using the links in this section.

You can also visit our photo gallery of anatomy photos.

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Anatomy

Anatomy

Grey’s Anatomy Recap: #Japril Goes to Montana – Vulture

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Grey's Anatomy Recap: #Japril Goes to Montana - Vulture

Anatomy

Even Grey’s Anatomy wants to get out of that damn hospital – A.V. Club

Because The A.V. Club knows that TV shows keep going even if were not writing at length about them, were experimenting with discussion posts. For certain shows, one of our TV writers will publish some brief thoughts about the latest episode, and open the comments for readers to share theirs.

Previous episode Who hates each other more: Everyone on Greys Anatomy, or ourselves for watching it?

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Posted Mar 17 Music Review

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Even Grey's Anatomy wants to get out of that damn hospital - A.V. Club