Neuroscience

How AI and Neuroscience Can Help Each Other Progress? – Analytics Insight

Artificial Intelligence has progressed immensely in the past few years. From being just a fiction context to penetrating into the regular lives of people, AI has brought transformation in several ways. Such advancements are an output of various factors that include the application of new statistical approaches and enhanced computing powers. However, according to 2017 report by DeepMind,a Perspective in the journal Neuron, argues that people often discount the contribution and use of ideas from experimental and theoretical neuroscience.

TheDeepMind reportsresearchers believe that drawing inspiration from neuroscience in AI research is important for two reasons. First, neuroscience can help validate AI techniques that already exist. They said, Put simply if we discover one of our artificial algorithms mimics a function within the brain, it suggests our approach may be on the right track. Second, neuroscience can provide a rich source of inspiration for new types of algorithms and architectures to employ when building artificial brains. Traditional approaches to AI have historically been dominated by logic-based methods and theoretical mathematical models.

Moreover,in a recent blog post, DeepMind suggests that the human brain and AI learning methods are closely linked when it comes to learning through reward.

Computer scientists have developed algorithms for reinforcement learning in artificial systems. These algorithms enable AI systems to learn complex strategies without external instruction, guided instead by reward predictions.

As noted by the post, a recent development in computer science which yields significant improvements in performance on reinforcement learning problems may provide a deep, parsimonious explanation for several previously unexplained features of reward learning in the brain, and opens up new avenues of research into the brains dopamine system, with potential implications for learning and motivation disorders.

DeepMind found that dopamine neurons in the brain were each tuned to different levels of pessimism or optimism. If they were a choir, they wouldnt all be singing the same note, but harmonizing each with a consistent vocal register, like bass and soprano singers. In artificial reinforcement learning systems, this diverse tuning creates a richer training signal that greatly speeds learning in neural networks, and researchers speculate that the brain might use it for the same reason.

The existence of distributional reinforcement learning in the brain has interesting implications both for AI and neuroscience. Firstly, this discovery validates distributional reinforcement learning it gives researchers increased confidence that AI research is on the right track since this algorithm is already being used in the most intelligent entity they are aware of: the brain.

Therefore, a shared framework for intelligence in context to artificial intelligence and neuroscience will allow scientists to build smarter machines, and enable them to understand humankind better. This collaborative drive to propel both could possibly expand human cognitive capabilities while bridging the gap between humans and machines.

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Smriti is a Content Analyst at Analytics Insight. She writes Tech/Business articles for Analytics Insight. Her creative work can be confirmed @analyticsinsight.net. She adores crushing over books, crafts, creative works and people, movies and music from eternity!!

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How AI and Neuroscience Can Help Each Other Progress? - Analytics Insight

Neuroscience

Brain Atlas enables exploration of the brain proteome – Drug Target Review

International researchers have analysed nearly 1,900 brain samples to create the Brain Atlas, the latest database released by the Human Protein Atlas (HPA) project.

A comprehensive overview of all the proteins expressed in the human brain has been released. The open-access Brain Atlas database is the culmination of international collaboration led by researchers at the Karolinska Institutet in Sweden.

The researchers say the database could be instrumental in developing more effective targeted therapies and diagnostics for psychiatric and neurological diseases.

The Brain Atlas is based on the analysis of approximately 1,900 brain samples covering 27 brain regions, combining data from the human brain with corresponding information from the brains of the pig and mouse.

As expected, the blueprint for the brain is shared among mammals, but the new map also reveals interesting differences between human, pig and mouse brains, says Mathias Uhln, Professor at the Department of Protein Science at KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Visiting professor at the Department of Neuroscience at Karolinska Institutet and Director of the Human Protein Atlas effort.

The study, published in Science, revealed the most distinct region of the brain is the cerebellum. According to the researchers, many proteins have elevated expression levels in this region, particularly those associated with psychiatric disorders.

Another interesting finding is that the different cell types of the brain share specialised proteins with peripheral organs, revealed Dr Evelina Sjstedt, researcher at the Department of Neuroscience at Karolinska Institutet and first author on the paper. For example, astrocytes, the cells that filter the extracellular environment in the brain share a lot of transporters and metabolic enzymes with cells in the liver that filter the blood.

Comparing the different neurotransmitter systems also revealed differences: several molecular components of neurotransmitter systems, especially receptors that respond to released neurotransmitters and neuropeptides, show a different pattern in humans and mice, explained Dr Jan Mulder, group leader of the Human Protein Atlas brain profiling group and researcher at the Department of Neuroscience at Karolinska Institutet. This means that caution should be taken when selecting animals as models for human mental and neurological disorders.

For selected genes and proteins, the Brain Atlas contains microscopic images showing the protein distribution in human brain samples and detailed, zoomable maps of protein distribution in the mouse brain.

The Brain Atlas database is the latest released by the Human Protein Atlas (HPA) program which started in 2003 with the aim to map the entirety of the human proteome.

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Brain Atlas enables exploration of the brain proteome - Drug Target Review

Biochemistry

Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | | UMass …

This year Biology, Biochemistry, and Core Facilities staff, students, and faculty collaborated on the Drug Discovery: Medicinal Properties of Plants course. This 2-week course shared the richness of the Plant Cell Culture Library as both a research and an educational resource with high school students in the UMass Summer Precollege program. This year our enrollment increased from 5 to 11, including several local students, 1 international student, and others from as far away as Texas and California. Students attended faculty lectures, propagated plants at the Morrill Greenhouse, visited research labs, pressed local plant specimens in the herbarium, designed primers, performed DNA extractions, PCR, agarose gel electrophoresis, and a disc diffusion assay, toured the Nourse Farms strawberry propagation center in Whately, designed and printed 3D models of plant metabolites, and presented their findings at a poster session in the Life Science Laboratories Conference Center. We are very proud of what our students have accomplished in 2 weeks and hope to see them on campus again soon. Thank you to all who supported our students' success in this course!

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Biochemistry

Biochemistry of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are carbon compounds that contain largequantities of hydroxyl groups. The simplest carbohydrates also contain eitheran aldehyde moiety (these are termed polyhydroxyaldehydes) or a ketone moiety (polyhydroxyketones). Allcarbohydrates can be classified as either monosaccharides, oligosaccharides or polysaccharides.Anywhere from two to ten monosaccharide units, linked by glycosidic bonds, make up an oligosaccharide.Polysaccharides are much larger, containing hundreds of monosaccharide units.The presence of the hydroxyl groups allows carbohydrates to interact with theaqueous environment and to participate in hydrogen bonding, both within andbetween chains. Derivatives of the carbohydrates can contain nitrogens,phosphates and sulfur compounds. Carbohydrates also can combine with lipid toform glycolipids or withprotein to form glycoproteins.

The predominant carbohydrates encountered in the bodyare structurally related to the aldotriose glyceraldehyde and to the ketotriose dihydroxyacetone. All carbohydratescontain at least one asymmetrical (chiral) carbon and are, therefore, opticallyactive. In addition, carbohydrates can exist in either of two conformations, asdetermined by the orientation of the hydroxyl group about the asymmetric carbonfarthest from the carbonyl. With a few exceptions, those carbohydrates that areof physiological significance exist in the D-conformation. The mirror-image conformations, called enantiomers, are in the L-conformation.

The monosaccharides commonly found in humans areclassified according to the number of carbons they contain in their backbonestructures. The major monosaccharides contain four to six carbon atoms.

The aldehyde and ketone moieties of the carbohydrateswith five and six carbons will spontaneously react with alcohol groups presentin neighboring carbons to produce intramolecular hemiacetals or hemiketals, respectively. This results in the formation of five-or six-membered rings. Because the five-membered ring structure resembles theorganic molecule furan, derivatives with this structure are termed furanoses. Those with six-membered rings resemble the organicmolecule pyran and are termed pyranoses

Such structures can be depicted byeither Fischer or Haworthstyle diagrams. The numbering of thecarbons in carbohydrates proceeds from the carbonyl carbon, for aldoses, or thecarbon nearest the carbonyl, for ketoses.

Structural models of glucose. Glucose can exist in the - and -enantiomeric forms in solution. The structure of either form of glucose is commonly depicted using cyclic Fischer projection or the cyclic Haworth projection.

The rings can open and re-close, allowing rotation tooccur about the carbon bearing the reactive carbonyl yielding two distinctconfigurations ( and ) of the hemiacetals and hemiketals. The carbon aboutwhich this rotation occurs is the anomeric carbon and the twoforms are termed anomers. Carbohydrates can change spontaneously between the and configurations: a process known asmutarotation. When drawn in the Fischer projection, the configuration places the hydroxyl attached to the anomeric carbon to the right,towards the ring. When drawn in the Haworth projection, the configuration places the hydroxyl downward.

The spatial relationships of the atoms of the furanose and pyranose ring structures are more correctly describedby the two conformations identified as the chair form and the boatform. The chair form is the more stable of the two. Constituents of thering that project above or below the plane of the ring are axial and those that project parallelto the plane are equatorial. In the chair conformation, the orientationof the hydroxyl group about the anomeric carbon of -D-glucose is axial and equatorial in -D-glucose.

Covalent bonds between the anomeric hydroxyl of acyclic sugar and the hydroxyl of a second sugar (or another alcohol containingcompound) are termed glycosidic bonds, and the resultant molecules are glycosides. The linkage of two monosaccharides to formdisaccharides involves a glycosidic bond. Several physiogically importantdisaccharides are sucrose, lactose and maltose.

Sucrose: prevalent in sugar cane and sugar beets, iscomposed of glucose and fructose through an (1,2)-glycosidic bond.

Lactose: is found exclusively in the milk of mammals andconsists of galactose and glucose in a (1,4)glycosidic bond.

Maltose: the major degradation product of starch, iscomposed of 2 glucose monomers in an (1,4)glycosidic bond.

Most of the carbohydrates found in nature occur inthe form of high molecular weight polymers called polysaccharides. The monomeric building blocks usedto generate polysaccharides can be varied; in all cases, however, thepredominant monosaccharide found in polysaccharides is D-glucose. Whenpolysaccharides are composed of a single monosaccharide building block, theyare termed homopolysaccharides.Polysaccharides composed of more than one type of monosaccharide are termed heteropolysaccharides.

Glycogen is the major form of stored carbohydrate inanimals. This crucial molecule is a homopolymer of glucose in (1,4) linkage; it is also highly branched, with (1,6) branch linkages occurring every 8-10 residues.Glycogen is a very compact structure that results from the coiling of thepolymer chains. This compactness allows large amounts of carbon energy to bestored in a small volume, with little effect on cellular osmolarity.

Glycogen Structure. Section of a glycogen polymer depicting glucose monomers as colored balls. The blue balls represent glucose linked by 1,4 glycosidic bonds. The red balls represent glucose at branch points where there are both 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds. The orange balls represent the reducing ends of the polymeric chains of 1,4-linked glucoses. The area in the box is expanded to show the actual structure of the glucose monomers in both -1,4- and -1,6 glycosidic linkages.

Starch is the major form of stored carbohydrate inplant cells. Its structure is identical to glycogen, except for a much lowerdegree of branching (about every 2030 residues). Unbranched starch is called amylose; branched starch is called amylopectin.

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Biochemistry of Carbohydrates

Biochemistry

‘Seeing the Invisible’ exhibit opens in the Chappell Family Gallery – Duke Chronicle

If youve walked through the Chappell Family gallery in Perkins Library any time recently, youve probably noticed it: the big colorful arrows and ribbons on the walls, the twisting wires and strange diagrams galore.

The exhibit, called Seeing the Invisible: 50 Years of Macromolecule Visualization, chronicles the development of a key visualization technique in the field of biology. With its grand opening this past Wednesday, Feb 23, the display is centered around the ever-important ribbon model for proteins. If youve taken biology classes, then you would surely recognize the model, widely used due to its ability to easily show the -Helice and -Strands in the secondary structure of protein molecules.

The exhibit, which replaces last semesters Senses of Venice, focuses on the work of Duke professors and married couple Jane and David Richardson, who pioneered the ribbon model often called the Richardson model, reflecting how significant their contribution is to the subject.

Jane Richardson, who graduated with a Bachelors degree in philosophy from Swarthmore College in 1962 before earning a Masters degree from Harvard in 1966, took a non-typical route toward science. But even though she may have not followed the traditional path for a biology researcher, her philosophy background was helpful and unique enough.

In a 2018 interview with the Chronicle, Jane said, [Philosophy] teaches you not just to do critical thinking, but really to push it and always question an assumption.

However, despite her heavy involvement in philosophy, Richardson had long been interested in science, winning the Westinghouse Science Talent Search in high school for calculating the orbit of the satellite Sputnik. When she joined her husband at an MIT lab, where David Richardson was working toward a doctoral degree, to study staphylococcal nuclease protein with X-ray crystallography, she began a career-long focus on protein structure.

The Richardsons then began trailblazing new frontiers within the discipline. After moving to Duke University in 1970, they found the first crystal structure of the enzyme superoxide dismutase. Without the current-day technology of synchrotrons, or strong sources of X-rays, scientists, including the Richardsons, relied on crystallography. In the following decade, they came up with the first ribbon drawings of the molecule, and by 1981, the first images of her famous ribbon model appeared in an article titled The anatomy and taxonomy of protein structure, published in the journal Advances in Protein Chemistry.

Creating this model, though, was not easy. It required years of research, and models were constructed in several different mediums, including the wire figures seen around the exhibit and even a wooden design created by a bevel miter saw (which was also used to build their home in the Duke forest). Most influential, though, would be the iconic dual drawings of the Staphylococcal nuclease. In the exhibit, there are both the primary sketch drawn by Jane Richardson and the final pen-and-ink version. She spent an entire year just learning to draw 2-D ribbon drawings that fully represented the entire 3-D protein molecule.

After their breakthrough with the ribbon model, the Richardsons continued to work and excel in the field of biochemistry. In 1985, Jane Richardson received the MacArthur Fellowship, and, even though she may not have completed a PhD degree program, she has been awarded three honorary doctorates over the years from Swarthmore College, the UNC Chapel Hill and the University of Richmond.

Even today, the couple keeps themselves busy. As the two heads of the Richardson lab here at Duke University, they oversee important research in the field of biochemistry. Questions about resolution and computer modeling remain pressing concerns in the Richardson Lab.

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'Seeing the Invisible' exhibit opens in the Chappell Family Gallery - Duke Chronicle

Neuroscience

LabRoots Announces Neuroscience 2020 Virtual Conference to Promote Research Worldwide and The NIH BRAIN Initiative – PR Web

YORBA LINDA, Calif. (PRWEB) March 05, 2020

LabRoots, the leading scientific social networking website offering premier, interactive virtual events and webinars, will be hosting approximately 15,000 neuroscience researchers, clinicians, and scientists from around the globe who are dedicated to understanding the brain and nervous system. The annual, free Neuroscience Virtual Event will capture emerging developments in Neuroscience and the impact brain research has on society, together with the latest innovations.

With nearly 70 speakers, including two stellar keynote deliveries, 15 on-demand discussions, and 13 panels, Neuroscience 2020 showcases an extremely comprehensive program supported by the organizing committee of renowned academia and industry experts, The NIH BRAIN team, and dedicated sponsors.

Featuring neural circuit and behavior dynamics, cell diversity, tool and technology development, advancing human neuroscience: basic to clinical projects, and neuroethics presented by early career scientists diverse in background, The NIH BRAIN Initiative session will preview a multidisciplinary approach to neuroscience. The agenda also highlights the scourge of neurodegenerative diseases and dementia, and behavioral and psychiatric disorders to expand on the all-encompassing theme of the conference - brain function in health and disease.

This years agenda commences with a keynote academia speaker, Dario Alessi, FRS FMedSci FRSE, Director, Professor of Signal Transduction at University of Dundee, describing the nuts and bolts of the LRRK2 signaling pathway and how it is linked to Parkinsons Disease, and new approaches that could be exploited to better diagnose the disease. Following, Dr. Walter Koroshetz, Director of the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke who played a significant role in the revolution in acute stroke care in the US and the growth of the neurointensive care field, will deliver a keynote presentation on The BRAIN Initiative and its promise for new Neurotechnologies to more effectively diagnose and treat neuro/mental/substance abuse disorders.

The featured notable speakers cover many significant areas of Neuroscience including open science and data sharing for behavioral neuroscience, understanding the pitfalls and advantages of cognitive testing in mouse models of disease, deciphering the spreading of neuropathologies in neuronal circuits using a high capacity microfluidics platform, and learning about a protein that is a potential key player in neurodegeneration and aging, and much more.

This years Brain Initiative track will showcase the power of combining diverse expertise and teamwork in tackling some of the most challenging areas of contemporary neuroscience research, commented Karen K. David, Ph.D., Program Director, BRAIN Initiative. We are excited to feature through LabRoots the breadth of expertise of our early-career scientists and representative collaborative projects that tackle the circuit basis of behavior, cell diversity, resource development, and human neuroscience. Through Labroots' virtual environment, we are able to feature the team neuroscience approach that can often be difficult to showcase through usual channels including conferences.

Progressing at a remarkable pace, Neuroscience is one of the most exciting fields of biomedical research and our interactive forum continues to lead our mission in sharing cutting-edge science on a global front, said Greg Cruikshank, Chief Executive Officer of LabRoots. We look forward to deepening the knowledge through valuable discussions, as the research of the human brain continues to evolve.

Produced on LabRoots robust platform, this online environment with exhibit and poster halls, and networking lounge allows attendees to connect seamlessly across all desktop and mobile devices. By participating in this event, Continuing Education credit (1 per presentation) can be earned for a maximum of 40 credits.

For more information or to register for the event, click here. Participants can follow the conversation online by using #LRneuro.

About LabRoots LabRoots is the leading scientific social networking website, and primary source for scientific trending news and premier educational virtual events and webinars and more. Contributing to the advancement of science through content sharing capabilities, LabRoots is a powerful advocate in amplifying global networks and communities. Founded in 2008, LabRoots emphasizes digital innovation in scientific collaboration and learning. Offering more than articles and webcasts that go beyond the mundane and explore the latest discoveries in the world of science, LabRoots users can stay atop their field by gaining continuing education credits from a wide range of topics through their participation in the webinars and virtual events.

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LabRoots Announces Neuroscience 2020 Virtual Conference to Promote Research Worldwide and The NIH BRAIN Initiative - PR Web

Neuroscience

Five Inspiring Creators Working In The Immersive Industry – Forbes

International Womens Day (IWD) is celebrated on March 8 each year to highlight the achievements of women all over the world.

Every day Im introduced to brilliant women who are pushing boundaries in the immersive space and creating the future. To mark International Womens Day, I wanted to highlight a few of these creators that inspire me and my team.

Sally Slade, LA, California

As the lead AR/VR developer at LA-based Magnopus, Slade envisions crossovers between the digital and physical worldsthen she makes them a reality. She started her career in the visual effects industry but got hooked on VR after trying Tilt brush and painting in 3D.

Slade has released four titles to Microsoft HoloLens including Muralize, an app that projects holographic images that users can trace to make large-scale art. Slade was also a developer on the Emmy-nominated experiences Mission: ISS and Coco VR.

Magnopus

Amy Robinson Sterling, Cambridge, Massachusetts

Robinson is the Executive Director of EyeWire and Neo, games to map the brain. EyeWire crowdsources neuroscience. It challenges hundreds of thousands of players around the world to solve 3D puzzles and map out neurons, allowing neuroscientists to chart synaptic connections among neurons and begin to decipher the mysteries of how we see. EyeWire is the first of many games that will invite the world to make discoveries about how the brain works.

Under Robinsons leadership, EyeWires neuroscience visualizations have appeared at TED, the United Nations and in Times Square NYC. She produced the worlds first neuroscience virtual reality experience and curates the NIH 3D Print Exchange Neuroscience collection.

Amy-Robinson-Sterling

Chantal Matar, London, England

London-based architect and designer, Matar has collaborated with International Architectural firms, such as The Prince's Foundation, Anouska Hempel Design, and Bernard Khoury Architects.

Since 2018, Matar has been working at Zaha Hadid Architects as a Senior Designer, overseeing high-end international projects in different stages. Recently, she has grown an interest in generative and new media art and has participated in various video mapping competitions as a means of artistic expression.

@chantal.matar on Instagram

Anna Zhilyaeva, Marseille, France

Zhilyaeva is a virtual reality artist. She uses Tilt Brush to entertain, inspire and break the boundaries of traditional art. Recently, she opened Worldskills 2019 in Kazan with a virtual reality painting performance. She applies her background in traditional art to create 3D work, with a mission to evoke mystery and love. Clients and partners have included HTC Vive, Google, IBM, and Microsoft. Her work can be found on her YouTube channel.

Holger Jacobs/ kultur24.berlin

Sara Thacher, Glendale, California

Thacher is a creative director and experience designer making immersive and playful experiences for Walt Disney Imagineering. Her adventures often meander between the physical and digital.

Before Disney, Thacher worked as an independent designer and producer working with clients such as No Mimes Media, Thomas Dolby, ZER01 and Meet Gatsby. She was also the Lead Producer and Experience Designer for the alternate reality game The Jejune Institute.

Sara thacher / ucla

The theme for this years IWD is #EachforEqual, focusing on creating a world that is gender equal that enables economies and communities to thrive. If youd like to get involved with supporting the IWD Community, head over to the website.

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Five Inspiring Creators Working In The Immersive Industry - Forbes

Neuroscience

UConn Professor Wins Award For Scholarship and Mentoring – UConn Daily Campus

The Mary S.EskineAward was created in honor of a former professor at Boston University who died from breast cancer in 2007 for her work in neuroscience and position as the Director of Undergraduate Research at Boston University. The award is given to professors nominated by their students for advocating undergraduate research and mentoring.

I have twoPhD students and 13 undergraduatestudents in my lab and,unknown to me, they and former students nominated me for this award, Dr. Markus said.

Dr. Markus research focuses on the development of memories using rats. His team monitorsthe rats brain cells, or neurons, while at restand while performing tasks such as running a maze. This data comes from the hippocampus, a region of the brain that is important for memory and spatial awareness.

Thomas Shao, an eighth-semester physiology and neurobiology major who does research with Dr. Markus, summarizes the research as the following, How do our experiences turn into a memory, what are the [neuronal] processes that go into observational learningand how do the different parts of the brain interact in order for us to perform spatial and motorresponses?

Thumbnail photo courtesy of Markus Lab at the University of Connecticut website.

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UConn Professor Wins Award For Scholarship and Mentoring - UConn Daily Campus

Neuroscience

In Conversation With Professor Bittu: A Neuroscientist And A Queer Activist – Feminism in India

The first time I attended Professor Bittus talk was during a celebratory gathering at Ashoka University when Section 377 was struck down. The second time, I attended his lecture for a Psychology 101 class, where he spoke about how the brain works. In both cases, I was awestruck by his brilliance and his passion for teaching, which was evident in the way he engaged with his students and articulated his ideas.

A Queer activist and a Neuroscientist, Professor Bittu has been a tireless advocate for the Dalit and LGBTQ community and has written in-depth about issues close to him. He is someone who has been involved in creating a safe space for marginalised people ever since he was in college. When he was in college at Harvard he joined the struggle for anti-war movement and rights of campus workers.

He is an Associate Professor of Biology and Psychology at Ashoka University. He completed his PhD from Harvard University in Neuroscience. He was an INSPIRE-faculty at the Central University of Hyderabad and a DST-Dr. D. S. Kothari postdoctoral fellow at the Center for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, where he studied the evolution of neural and behavioural systems of communication among Orthopteran insects in response to ecological constraints.

In this interview, he shares his astute insights into his work, questions of inclusivity of STEM, and shows us ways in which we can work to make STEM a more accessible space for marginalised communities.

I have always been interested in how the brain works and it has been something that I have been interested in since I was a student in school. I went to college, did a degree in Biochemistry, initially, for the first two years and I was quite frustrated by not being able to learn more about neuroscience and evolution. I then. I then transferred to another college where I could do a liberal arts degree in which I focused on evolution and neuroscience and then I went on to do a PhD integrated with aMaster in Neuroscience. After that, I went forward with Behaviour Ecology to understand the evolution of the neuro system and the ecological relevance of various behaviours and neuro function relative to those ecologically relevant behaviours.

There is a tendency in STEM to see ideas as existing in vacuums without understanding the cultural, historical and social context in which those ideas emerge.

I dont think STEM is exclusionary because of a lack of discourse on progressive issues, so much as its own lack of criticality around the project of who does science and why. I do think that STEM, being evidence-based, provides the possibility of accumulating evidence to dispel various regressive discourses. However, it is true that people in STEM are not familiarised with notions of being sensitive to other human beings in the course of formulating ideas in Science. There is a tendency in STEM to see ideas as existing in vacuums without understanding the cultural, historical and social context in which those ideas emerge. That means that ideas in science can sometimes be somewhat stale because they dont consider a change of perspective from other disciplinary lenses.

A lot of people in STEM are not particularly sensitive with regards to gender, caste, class, around ability and disability and various other things like that and in general people see the activist work I do as completely unnecessary and pointless. These are some of the hurdles that I have encountered. Often when I interact with Scientists they start off with the fairly standard social biases that are not particularly Trans-Friendly.

Making STEM more inclusive would have to involve making STEM more accountable to the public, more inclusive of other disciplines and other ways of thinking. And I think that will help STEM fields be less derivative, less stuck in a rut, and so on.

Also Read: How Psychology Wronged Women

For most of my life, I found my work as a biology Professor did not in any way overlap with my work as an activist. These have been two separate and very energy draining aspects of my life. Now I am finding some common ground just as a result of thinking for years these two things separately. One is that I think that some lessons about how we regulate ourselves as a society can be gleaned from an ecological understanding and two, increasing our need to regulate the ways which we influence nature and climate change are going to become essential to how it is that we organise ourselves socially and economically. These are the two areas of relevance where I think my work as a biology Professor overlaps with my work as an activist. I am starting to feel that in the absence of good theoretical models for both of these, we are hitting against the same kind of problems over and over again in activism.

Neuroscience is also a tool that feminist can use to find evidence to combat notions of male superiority and it is the science that has given us and demolished a lot of social, completely evidence-free notions of male superiority that, in fact, pervaded science in ways which were not backed by evidence.

Neuroscience studies have been historically used to assert male superiority and that is certainly the case. However, Neuroscience is also a tool that feminist can use to find evidence to combat notions of male superiority and it is the science that has given us and demolished a lot of social, completely evidence-free notions of male superiority that, in fact, pervaded science in ways which were not backed by evidence.

Also Read: How Is Evolutionary Theory Used To Justify Misogyny?

For LGBTQ Community, especially Trans community and queer community, where there are social notions that are completely evidence-free, that says that Trans and homosexuality is unnatural and so on. Both animal history and Neuroscience can provide an understanding of the biological basis. There is a biological basis to all ways in which socialisations and genetics affect the brain and these will then enable us to understand that there is a biological basis to all of these behaviours and that there is nothing unnatural about it.

Professor Bittu busts the popular myth of incompatibility between science and feminism. Feminism isnt anti-science. Feminists are finally calling out science for overlooking cultural, historical, and social contexts of scientific ideas, and the invisibilisation of marginalised identities. What we need is a convergence of both science and feminism, rather than mutual exclusivity. As Professor Bittu said, science really can be a huge asset in validating feminist beliefs. On the other hand, science ought to become more inclusive of other disciplines and be more accountable to the public. Professor Bittus insights are extremely valuable to all those in the fields of STEM as well as feminists.

Featured Image Source: Ashoka University

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In Conversation With Professor Bittu: A Neuroscientist And A Queer Activist - Feminism in India

Neuroscience

Researchers Discover Role in the Emotional Brain for Neurotransmitter – Technology Networks

A new neurotransmitter system in the brain has been discovered by an international group of researchers led by Professor Raul R. Gainetdinov, the director of the Institute of Translational Biomedicine and academic supervisor of the Clinic of High Medical Technologies of St Petersburg University. Within this system, the transmission of signals between neurons in the brain occurs via the trace amine-associated receptor 5 (TAAR5). The results of the study will allow the development of new types of drugs for depression, schizophrenia and anxiety disorders. An academic paper describing the discovery has been published in the journal Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience.

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit signals between neurons or from neurons to other cells. They interact with specific receptors found in the brain of humans and animals, controlling a variety of biological processes, e.g. fear, anger, pleasure, memory, energy, appetite and sleep. Today, scientists know various types of neurotransmitter systems: dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, histamine, glutamate, and many others. A large number of clinically used drugs for many brain disorders is based on the action on these systems.

The St Petersburg University researchers, together with colleagues from the Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (Genova, Italy) and the Pavlov First St Petersburg State Medical University (St. Petersburg, Russia) conducted experiments on mutant mice. They were able to show that there is a novel neurotransmitter system in the brain - in it, signal transmission of innate olfactory information into the "emotional" brain areas occurs via the trace amine-associated receptor 5 TAAR5.

'Trace amines are cousins of well-known neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin,' explains Raul Gainetdinov. 'It is known that humans have six subtypes of trace amine-associated receptors that sense trace amines. The TAAR1 receptor is the best investigated, and it is considered so promising that in May 2019, the FDA (Food and Drug Administration, the agency of the US Department of Health and Human Services, which approves the launch of new drugs on the market) designated the experimental drug based on action on TAAR1 of Sunovion Pharmaceuticals the status of "breakthrough treatment" for schizophrenia. Since the FDA accepted the second stage of the clinical trial of their medication for schizophrenia as the third stage, the drug should enter the market within a few years. This should be the first antipsychotic drug in the world that is not a dopamine receptor blocker. It is worth noting that researchers of the St. Petersburg State University are also developing new drugs based on the action on TAAR1.'

Researchers drew attention to another trace amine-associated receptor, TAAR5. It was previously believed that all other receptors for trace amines, with the exception of TAAR1, are exclusively olfactory and participate only in the perception of socially-relevant innate odours (for example, the smell of rotten tissue, predators or pheromones). Therefore, it is believed that they are not useful in the search for novel cures for brain diseases. However, the St. Petersburg State University scientists were convinced of the contrary: to prove the important role of TAAR5 in the neuronal functions and psycho-emotional state, they conducted a series of experiments with knockout laboratory mice - the gene encoding the TAAR5 protein was "knocked out" or "turned off" in these animals. Instead, a marker was inserted into the genome, which allowed the researchers to see in which areas of the brain this protein is present.

'It turned out that TAAR5 is found not only in the nose and olfactory bulb, but also in the "emotional" brain areas associated with the olfactory system: the amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus and other structures,' said Professor Gainetdinov. In addition, we observed that the lack of TAAR5 results in the alteration of the concentration of serotonin in the brain, and this is the major indicator of changes in emotional behaviour. Finally, knockout mice without TAAR5 behave as if they are under the treatment with antidepressants or anti-anxiety drugs: they are not afraid of bright light and are not amenable to stress.

Preliminary data also suggest that all other trace amine-associated receptors are not only mediators of the innate olfactory function, but are also variously involved in the regulation of the psycho-emotional state. According to Raul Gainetdinov, this discovery can result in the development of fundamentally new drugs that can deal with schizophrenia, depression, anxiety disorders, various addictions, possibly even Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. The data obtained may have impact to various fields of neuroscience, psychiatry, psychology, and even aromatherapy.

'Now we have to search for effective antagonists - substances that will block TAAR5 receptors in the brain, thereby exerting an antidepressant and anti-anxiety effect,' said Raul Gainetdinov. 'Our laboratory at the St Petersburg University has essentially everything for these studies: we have developed a test system for searching for drugs that activate or block TAAR5 and other receptors; and we also have a unique collection of knockout animals for all receptors for trace amines. We hope to find the support of industrial partners with whom we will be able to develop innovative drugs that no one has created yet. So far, we have investigated only one receptor, TAAR5, which has been previously considered to be an exclusively olfactory receptor. We are performing now studies of four other trace amine-associated receptors, which can open new unexpected directions in the pharmacology of various brain diseases.'

Reference: Espinoza, S., Sukhanov, I., Efimova, E. V., Kozlova, A., Antonova, K. A., Illiano, P., Leo, D., Merkulyeva, N., Kalinina, D., Musienko, P., Rocchi, A., Mus, L., Sotnikova, T. D., & Gainetdinov, R. R. (2020). Trace Amine-Associated Receptor 5 Provides Olfactory Input Into Limbic Brain Areas and Modulates Emotional Behaviors and Serotonin Transmission. Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2020.00018

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