Cell Biology

Assistant / Associate / Professor for School of Life Science and Technology job with SHANGHAITECH UNIVERSITY | 205309 – Times Higher Education (THE)

Officially established on September 30th 2013 by Chinas Ministry of Education, ShanghaiTech University is a small-scale research university of academic excellence jointly established by Shanghai Municipal Government and Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS). ShanghaiTech focuses on science and engineering. The university consists of four schools and two research institutes: School of Physical Science and Technology (SPST), School of Information Science and Technology (SIST), School of Life Science and Technology (SLST), School of Entrepreneurship and Management (SEM), Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies (SIAIS) and iHuman Institute.

Qualifications

SLST is seeking applications focused on, but not limited to, genomics and proteomics, epigenetics, RNA biology, systems and computational biology, stem cell biology and regenerative medicine, super-resolution microscopy, chemical biology and drug discovery, and translational medicine. Successful applicants should have an exceptional track record of research in life science or technology in the last five years. The recruited faculty members are expected to develop a first-rate research program and contribute to the educational missions of SLSTs undergraduate and graduate prog

Salary Package

Salary is highly competitive and commensurate with experience and academic accomplishments. ShanghaiTech also offers a comprehensive benefit package. On-campus professor apartment is provided.

ShanghaiTech will provide internationally competitive start-up funds, including support for Research Associates and Post-Doctoral fellows. Laboratory space will be provided to match research needs.

Application Procedure

Submit a cover letter (Firstname_Lastname_Cover_Letter.pdf), a 2-page research plan (Firstname_Lastname_Research_Plan.pdf), a CV (Firstname_Lastname_CV.pdf), up to 3 copies of most significant publications (Firstname_Lastname_Paper1-3.pdf), and the names of three references to SLST@shanghaitech.edu.cn.

Review of applications will start immediately and will continue until positions are filled.

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Assistant / Associate / Professor for School of Life Science and Technology job with SHANGHAITECH UNIVERSITY | 205309 - Times Higher Education (THE)

Cell Biology

Immune cell type in breast ducts points to better treatment of breast cancer: Aussie research – Brinkwire

SYDNEY, April 28 (Xinhua) A new type of specialized immune cells that maintain the health of breast ducts has been discovered using advanced imaging techniques, pointing to better understanding and treatment of breast cancer, according to a latest Australian research.

The immune cells help to keep breast tissue healthy by regulating a vital process within mammary ducts the sites where milk is produced and transported, but also where most breast cancers arise, the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research said in a statement on Tuesday.

The researchers used high-resolution 3D imaging to observe how the cells monitor threats in the mammary ducts and help maintain tissue health.

We discovered an entirely new population of specialized immune cells, which we named ductal macrophages, squeezed in between two layers of the mammary duct wall, institute researcher Caleb Dawson said.

We were excited to find that these cells play an essential role at a pivotal point in mammary gland function called involution when lactation stops, milk-producing cells die and breast tissue needs to remodel back to its original state, he said.

We watched incredulously as the star-shaped ductal macrophages probed with their arms and ate away dying cells. The clearing action performed by ductal macrophages helps redundant milk-producing structures to collapse, allowing them to successfully return to a resting state.

When the researchers later removed the specialized cells from the mammary ducts they discovered that no other immune cells were able to swiftly carry out the essential process, according to the institute. The findings were published in scientific journal Nature Cell Biology.

More than 19,000 Australians are diagnosed with breast cancer every year and it is the most common cancer in Australian women, according to the institute.

The researchers, going forward, hope to explore the function of ductal macrophages at different stages of mammary gland development, such as the transitions into adulthood and pregnancy, Dawson said. Enditem

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Immune cell type in breast ducts points to better treatment of breast cancer: Aussie research - Brinkwire

Cell Biology

Castle Biosciences Announces Publication of Validation Study for DecisionDx-SCC, Showing this Test is an Independent Predictor of Metastatic Risk in…

FRIENDSWOOD, Texas--(BUSINESS WIRE)-- Castle Biosciences, Inc. (Nasdaq: CSTL), a skin cancer diagnostics company providing personalized genomic information to improve cancer treatment decisions, today announced the publication of development and validation data for DecisionDx-SCC, its prognostic test for patients diagnosed with high-risk cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). The test is expected to be launched commercially in the second half of 2020.

The article titled, Validation of a 40-Gene Expression Profile Test to Predict Metastatic Risk in Localized High-Risk Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma, was published in the Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology (JAAD).

The study results demonstrate that DecisionDx-SCC is an independent predictor of metastatic risk that can complement current cancer risk-factor staging systems for patients with high-risk SCC.

As clinicians, we struggle with treatment decisions for patients with high-risk cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma due to the limitations of clinicopathologic based staging systems, said first author, Ashley Wysong, M.D., University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha NE. Validation of the DecisionDx-SCC test demonstrates significant progress in this area by integrating tumor-specific genetic information into clinical decision making. Having better prognostic information helps us to identify patients as low risk by tumor biology and manage them more conservatively with clinical surveillance, as well as provides us with data to help guide implementation of adjuvant interventions and clinical trial recommendations for those identified as high risk.

Disease and Study Background

Study Findings

DecisionDx-SCC is the second skin cancer test discovered, developed and validated by Castle Biosciences.

About Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is one of the most common cancers. Approximately 1 million patients are diagnosed with SCC each year in the U.S. While the majority of patients have a favorable prognosis, approximately 200,000 patients are identified as high risk. National guidelines provide for broad, aggressive treatment plan recommendations relative to low-risk patients. Traditional clinicopathologic based risk-factor staging systems suffer from low positive predictive value; meaning many more patients are classified as high risk than actually develop metastatic disease. This may lead to over- and under-treatment of a substantial number of cutaneous SCC patients. To address this clinical need, Castle Biosciences has developed a gene expression profile test designed to improve upon current staging systems and identify patients with cutaneous SCC at high risk for metastasis or recurrence, in order to enable more informed, objective clinical decisions regarding adjuvant therapy and other management options.

About Castle Biosciences

Castle Biosciences (Nasdaq: CSTL) is a commercial-stage dermatologic cancer company focused on providing physicians and their patients with personalized, clinically actionable genomic information to make more accurate treatment decisions. The Company currently offers tests for patients with cutaneous melanoma (DecisionDx-Melanoma, DecisionDx-CMSeq; http://www.SkinMelanoma.com) and uveal melanoma (DecisionDx-UM, DecisionDx-PRAME and DecisionDx-UMSeq; http://www.MyUvealMelanoma.com), with products in development for other underserved cancers, the two most advanced of which are focused on patients with cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma, and patients who have a difficult-to-diagnose pigmented lesion. Castle Biosciences is based in Friendswood, Texas (Houston), and has laboratory operations in Phoenix, Arizona. For more information, visit http://www.CastleBiosciences.com.

DecisionDx-Melanoma, DecisionDx-CMSeq, DecisionDx-UM, DecisionDx-PRAME and DecisionDx-UMSeq are trademarks of Castle Biosciences, Inc.

Forward-Looking Statements

The information in this press release contains forward-looking statements and information within the meaning of Section 27A of the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, and Section 21E of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, which are subject to the safe harbor created by those sections. These forward-looking statements include, but are not limited to, statements concerning the ability of DecisionDx-SCC test results to appropriately direct cutaneous SCC patient work-up and treatment plans; the ability of DecisionDx-SCC to improve upon existing staging systems and accurately classify patient risk; and expectations of DecisionDx-SCC to enable de-escalation of care in patients identified as high risk by traditional staging and provide objective data to implement proper recommendations for actual high-risk patients. The words anticipates, believes, estimates, expects, intends, may, plans, projects, will, would and similar expressions are intended to identify forward-looking statements; although, not all forward-looking statements contain these identifying words. We may not actually achieve the plans, intentions, or expectations disclosed in our forward-looking statements and you should not place undue reliance on our forward-looking statements. Actual results or events could differ materially from the plans, intentions and expectations disclosed in the forward-looking statements that we make. These forward-looking statements involve risks and uncertainties that could cause our actual results to differ materially from those in the forward-looking statements, including, without limitation, the risks set forth in our Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2019, filed with the SEC on March 10, 2020, and in our other filings with the SEC. The forward-looking statements are applicable only as of the date on which they are made, and we do not assume any obligation to update any forward-looking statements, except as may be required by law.

View source version on businesswire.com: https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20200429005114/en/

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Castle Biosciences Announces Publication of Validation Study for DecisionDx-SCC, Showing this Test is an Independent Predictor of Metastatic Risk in...

Neuroscience

Global Neuroscience Antibodies and Assays Market (2020 to 2024) – Key Players Include Abcam, Bio-Rad Laboratories & Cell Signaling Technology…

DUBLIN--(BUSINESS WIRE)--The "Global Neuroscience Antibodies and Assays Market 2020-2024" report has been added to ResearchAndMarkets.com's offering.

The author has been monitoring the global neuroscience antibodies and assays market and it is poised to grow by USD 1.36 bn during 2020-2024, progressing at a CAGR of 8% during the forecast period. The reports on global neuroscience antibodies and assays market provides a holistic analysis, market size and forecast, trends, growth drivers, and challenges, as well as vendor analysis covering around 25 vendors.

The report offers an up-to-date analysis regarding the current global market scenario, latest trends and drivers, and the overall market environment. The market is driven by technological advances. In addition, advances in neuroscience instruments is anticipated to boost the growth of the global neuroscience antibodies and assays market as well.

This study identifies advances in neuroscience instruments as the prime reasons driving the global neuroscience antibodies and assays market growth during the next few years.

Companies Mentioned

Key Topics Covered:

1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

2. SCOPE OF THE REPORT

3. MARKET LANDSCAPE

4. MARKET SIZING

5. FIVE FORCES ANALYSIS

6. MARKET SEGMENTATION BY PRODUCT

7. CUSTOMER LANDSCAPE

8. GEOGRAPHIC LANDSCAPE

9. DRIVERS AND CHALLENGES

10. MARKET TRENDS

11. VENDOR LANDSCAPE

12. VENDOR ANALYSIS

13. APPENDIX

For more information about this report visit https://www.researchandmarkets.com/r/n0dh3w

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Global Neuroscience Antibodies and Assays Market (2020 to 2024) - Key Players Include Abcam, Bio-Rad Laboratories & Cell Signaling Technology...

Neuroscience

Yoshua Bengio: Attention is a core ingredient of conscious AI – VentureBeat

During the International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR) 2020 this week, which as a result of the pandemic took place virtually, Turing Award winner and director of the Montreal Institute for Learning Algorithms Yoshua Bengio provided a glimpse into the future of AI and machine learning techniques. He spoke in February at the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence 2020 in New York alongside fellow Turing Award recipients Geoffrey Hinton and Yann LeCun. But in a lecture published Monday, Bengio expounded upon some of his earlier themes.

One of those was attention in this context, the mechanism by which a person (or algorithm) focuses on a single element or a few elements at a time. Its central both to machine learning model architectures like Googles Transformer and to the bottleneck neuroscientific theory of consciousness, which suggests that people have limited attention resources, so information is distilled down in the brain to only its salient bits. Models with attention have already achieved state-of-the-art results in domains like natural language processing, and they could form the foundation of enterprise AI that assists employees in a range of cognitively demanding tasks.

Bengio described the cognitive systems proposed by Israeli-American psychologist and economist Daniel Kahneman in his seminal book Thinking, Fast and Slow. The first type is unconscious its intuitive and fast, non-linguistic and habitual, and it deals only with implicit types of knowledge. The second is conscious its linguistic and algorithmic, and it incorporates reasoning and planning, as well as explicit forms of knowledge. An interesting property of the conscious system is that it allows the manipulation of semantic concepts that can be recombined in novel situations, which Bengio noted is a desirable property in AI and machine learning algorithms.

Current machine learning approaches have yet to move beyond the unconscious to the fully conscious, but Bengio believes this transition is well within the realm of possibility. He pointed out that neuroscience research has revealed that the semantic variables involved in conscious thought are often causal they involve things like intentions or controllable objects. Its also now understood that a mapping between semantic variables and thoughts exists like the relationship between words and sentences, for example and that concepts can be recombined to form new and unfamiliar concepts.

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Attention is one of the core ingredients in this process, Bengio explained.

Building on this, in a recent paper he and colleagues proposed recurrent independent mechanisms (RIMs), a new model architecture in which multiple groups of cells operate independently, communicating only sparingly through attention. They showed that this leads to specialization among the RIMs, which in turn allows for improved generalization on tasks where some factors of variation differ between training and evaluation.

This allows an agent to adapt faster to changes in a distribution or inference in order to discover reasons why the change happened, said Bengio.

He outlined a few of the outstanding challenges on the road to conscious systems, including identifying ways to teach models to meta-learn (or understand causal relations embodied in data) and tightening the integration between machine learning and reinforcement learning. But hes confident that the interplay between biological and AI research will eventually unlock the key to machines that can reason like humans and even express emotions.

Consciousness has been studied in neuroscience with a lot of progress in the last couple of decades. I think its time for machine learning to consider these advances and incorporate them into machine learning models.

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Yoshua Bengio: Attention is a core ingredient of conscious AI - VentureBeat

Neuroscience

Emotional eating: why do I eat when I’m bored? – Big Think

We all know the feeling of being insatiably hungry, but have you ever stopped to consider what kind of hunger you're really feeling and what that means?

True hunger builds gradually, and any type of food you find will satisfy your appetite. Once you've eaten enough, you stop. There are usually no lingering feelings of shame because you're providing your body with the energy it needs, even if the meal wasn't so healthy.

Emotional hunger, on the other hand, is an unhealthy response to stress that causes cravings for various types of food. This kind of hunger isn't as easy to stop and leads to over-eating, which usually makes you feel guilty.

Boredom hunger, where you aren't hungry but snack out of boredom (most of us do this while we watch Netflix), sometimes falls under the category of "emotional eating." Even if we aren't overly emotional at the time, stress and boredom mix well together when you're avoiding a task you find difficult or some other problem you don't want to address.

Escaping self-awareness and a surge of dopamine are two main reasons people eat when they are bored.

Photo by Andrey_Popov on Shutterstock

There are many reasons why you may find yourself illuminated by the refrigerator light every time you're feeling a bit restless.

A 2015 study suggests that we eat to escape our self-awareness.

"Being bored affectively marks an appraised lack of meaning in the present situation and in life," according to the researchers of this study. "Boredom increases eating in an attempt to distract from this experience, especially among people high in self-awareness."

Three studies were conducted to see how eating habits were affected by boredom. In the first study, boredom positively predicted calorie, fat, carb, and protein intake for the participants. In the second, a high (compared to low) boredom task increased the desire to snack compared to eating something healthy. In the third study, people who had high (compared to low) self-awareness consumed the most food during their peak times of boredom. Something important to note about the final study is that the subjects with increased self-awareness liked to eat exciting healthy food as well as exciting unhealthy food.

This suggests the act of selecting or cooking healthy recipes may play a factor in decreasing boredom.

The neuroscience of eating and boredom...is dopamine to blame?

Susan Carnell, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Johns Hopkins University, believes there is another reason we may be searching out food to satisfy our bored minds.

According to Carnell, dopamine likely plays a role in the boredom-hunger paradigm. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is crucial to our motivation levels. Dopamine is present during sex, when we fall in love, and when we're satisfying an addiction it's a pleasure-reward reaction that drives our motivations to do things that give us even more dopamine.

"The release of dopamine in the brain can be so stimulating and motivating that rats will lever-press for it to the exclusion of other crucially important activities like sleeping and eating," Carnell explained.

People who have naturally lower levels of dopamine are more likely to seek out and become addicted to dopamine-producing substances or activities like alcohol, drugs, and gambling.

Tracing this back to eating out of boredom, Carnell added that it's very likely that when we are bored or unhappy, our dopamine neurons are inactive. When we eat due to boredom, this can be a way of "waking up" our dopamine neurons so we can feel excited again.

How can I stop eating when I'm bored?

Photo by Brian A Jackson on Shutterstock

Occupy yourself by doing something fun.

Whether it's checking something off your to-do list, starting a craft like scrap-booking, or going for a nice walk, one of the best things you can do when you're feeling hungry due to boredom is to cure the boredom.

Doing something to occupy your time, even just temporarily, will likely get your mind out of the fridge and focused on something else until the hunger passes.

Drink water.

Dehydration and thirst are very commonly mistaken for hunger. Instead of reaching for a bag of chips next time you're feeling hungry, have a large glass of water first. You can even add a splash of lemon or lime to the water to trick your mind into thinking this is a little treat.

Keep your mouth busy.

Sometimes pretending as though you're eating is enough to fill the need to eat, especially when you're not hungry. Chewing gum is a great replacement for eating food you don't need to be eating.

Another idea to keep your mouth occupied is to call a friend you haven't heard from in a while or start a fun conversation with your spouse or kids. Conversations are a great way to distract your mind from eating when you're not really hungry.

Do something physical.

If Dr. Carnell is right, what you need is a big surge of dopamine, so why not get physical? Exercise sends a rush of dopamine throughout your system (the same as snacking on some popcorn might), and it's way more healthy.

You can slide on your running shoes and go for a jog or you can lay on the carpet and do some ab exercises while you watch Netflix. Either one will accomplish the same goal.

Wait out the boredom to see if you're really hungry.

Give yourself 30-60 minutes to determine whether what you're feeling is hunger due to boredom, or hunger due to really being hungry. Sometimes it's hard to tell the difference. True hunger will build and remain consistent, but emotional hunger (or boredom hunger) will fade as your mind becomes occupied with other things.

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Emotional eating: why do I eat when I'm bored? - Big Think

Neuroscience

Fund in memory of tragic teenager hits 100,000 with money from his own wallet – Yorkshire Post

HealthA group of fundraisers known as Team Jack was set up by Yorkshire teenager before he died of a tumour. Grace Hammond reports

Tuesday, 28th April 2020, 11:45 am

Jack Faulkners family and friends remember most his caring nature, warm sense of humour and his ability to time an eye-roll so well, entire rooms would descend into hysterics.

Almost two years have passed since 15-year-old Jack from Totley was diagnosed with an incurable brain tumour which would sadly end his life.

The fundraising effort which sparked the TeamJack movement was instigated by the teenager himself, as he set up a JustGiving page whilst beginning chemotherapy on the dedicated neurosciences ward, Ward 5, at Sheffield Childrens Hospital.

The money raised quickly exceeded all expectations. Supporters took on a host of events, from races, sponsored walks and triathlons to bake sales and charity stalls. Local pubs held collections, long-lost friends reconnected to pledge support and hospital staff wore special Team Jack badges emblazoned on their uniforms.

More than 500 people attended the Totley teens funeral; and in the months since, an incredible group of men, women and children Jacks family, friends and local community raised nearly 100,000 in his name, far more than the 20,000 target originally set.

Inspired by the teenagers remarkable resilience, #TeamJack led by mumSally, and dadDan are determined that the life of their lovely boy will be an ongoing force for good, with every penny raised going to Sheffield Childrens Hospitals neurosciences ward.

As the latest milestone approached, the cancellation of planned events left the fundraising just short of their 100,000 target, which is when Sally thought of a fitting way Jack could round up what he began.

It makes me quite emotional to talk about it, but when Jack became ill, he sold his old phone to his Grandpa for 80. We had just left the money in his wallet I couldnt bring myself to touch it, says Sally.

When I found out we were short, I knew what we had to do. As well as being the joker everyone remembers, he also had a very caring side. Dan and I were sobbing down the phone when I suggested it, but it felt right. This has always been about him and its fitting that it was Jacks own money got us here.

Dan added: Having Jack take us across the line really hit home, it was a moving moment. What we have been able to achieve together has been nothing short of incredible. I would never have dreamed to raise so much, all in the name of a very courageous young man.

The money raised has been split between two causes close to Jacks heart, The Childrens Hospital Charity and CLIC Sargant. At Jacks request, the money raised for Sheffield Childrens Hospital has been dedicated to Ward 5 which provided his treatment.

The fundraising is already having a positive impact at Sheffield Childrens Hospital. Jack spent 79 nights continuously on the neurosciences ward and three of his suggestions for improvement; video games consoles, new curtains and two specially adapted wheelchairs have already been funded.

Its great that the ward now has some nicer surroundings and weve helped to make things brighter, says Sally. The Childrens Hospital Charity listened to Jacks suggestions and theyre already making a difference. For Jacks parents, the fundraising effort has helped them deal with the loss of their son.

After everything that happened when Jack passed, I felt lost, continues Sally. The fundraising gave us a sense of purpose and focus, to build on Jacks legacy and continue helping other people. Its just been amazing how many people have stepped forward and asked can I join Team Jack? Jacks friends have been phenomenal too. The support they have given his younger sister Emily at school has been amazing, its such a relief to know they will always look out for her.

Dan added: Being able to fundraise and train for events has personally allowed me to keep my focus. Without that kind of structure in my life, I honestly dont know what would have happened.

The Childrens Hospital Charitys team have been great, and TeamJack as a community has provided a sense of normality and allowed us to get to a point where we are in a good place. I know for sure, that what weve been through has brought us closer together and made us stronger.

We will continue to raise as much money as we can. The next milestone might take a little longer to reach, but it will be just as important.

As well as the fundraising, the family also held a TeamJack Snowflake Charity Ball in November. The nurses and doctors who cared for Jack attended free of charge as a gesture of thanks from the family. Mum Sally was also involved in organising last summers Neuroscience Family Fun Day at Graves Park in Sheffield, which raised over 4,700.

Rachael Thomas, events fundraising officer at The Childrens Hospital Charity added: I was really moved to find out that Jack himself helped the fundraising in his name reach this incredible total.

Were so thankful to everyone in TeamJack who continues to dedicate themselves tirelessly to this effort, which has already achieved so much. It is lovely to know that the fundraising has already been used to help improve the wards surroundings, particularly for older patients, in a legacy that is sure to last for generations to come.

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Fund in memory of tragic teenager hits 100,000 with money from his own wallet - Yorkshire Post

Neuroscience

Scientists Reveal How General Anesthesia Works in the Brain – Technology Networks

Hailed as one of the most important medical advances, the discovery of general anesthetics compounds which induce unconsciousness, prevent control of movement and block pain helped transform dangerous and traumatic operations into safe and routine surgery. But despite their importance, scientists still dont understand exactly how general anesthetics work.Now, in a study published in the Journal of Neuroscience, researchers from the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University (OIST) and Nagoya University have revealed how a commonly used general anesthetic called isoflurane weakens the transmission of electrical signals between neurons, at junctions called synapses.

Importantly, we found that isoflurane did not block the transmission of all electrical signals equally; the anesthetic had the strongest effect on higher frequency impulses that are required for functions such as cognition or movement, whilst it had minimal effect on low frequency impulses that control life-supporting functions, such as breathing, said Professor Tomoyuki Takahashi, who leads the Cellular and Molecular Synaptic Function (CMSF) Unit at OIST. This explains how isoflurane is able to cause anesthesia, by preferentially blocking the high frequency signals.

At synapses, signals are sent by presynaptic neurons and received by postsynaptic neurons. At most synapses, communication occurs via chemical messengers or neurotransmitters.

When an electrical nerve impulse, or action potential, arrives at the end of the presynaptic neuron, this causes synaptic vesicles tiny membrane packets that contain neurotransmitters to fuse with the terminal membrane, releasing the neurotransmitters into the gap between neurons. When enough neurotransmitters are sensed by the postsynaptic neuron, this triggers a new action potential in the postsynaptic neuron.

The CMSF unit used rat brain slices to study a giant synapse called the calyx of Held. The scientists induced electrical signals at different frequencies and then detected the action potentials generated in the postsynaptic neuron. They found that as they increased the frequency of electrical signals, isoflurane had a stronger effect on blocking transmission.

To corroborate his units findings, Takahashi reached out to Dr. Takayuki Yamashita, a researcher from Nagoya University who conducted experiments on synapses, called cortico-cortical synapses, in the brains of living mice.

Yamashita found that the anesthetic affected cortico-cortical synapses in a similar way to the calyx of Held. When the mice were anesthetized using isoflurane, high frequency transmission was strongly reduced whilst there was less effect on low frequency transmission.

These experiments both confirmed how isoflurane acts as a general anesthetic, said Takahashi. But we wanted to understand what underlying mechanisms isoflurane targets to weaken synapses in this frequency-dependent manner.

The scientists therefore examined whether isoflurane affected calcium ion channels, which are key in the process of vesicle release. When action potentials arrive at the presynaptic terminal, calcium ion channels in the membrane open, allowing calcium ions to flood in. Synaptic vesicles then detect this rise in calcium, and they fuse with the membrane. The researchers found that isoflurane lowered calcium influx by blocking calcium ion channels, which in turn reduced the probability of vesicle release.

However, this mechanism alone could not explain how isoflurane reduces the number of releasable vesicles, or the frequency-dependent nature of isofluranes effect, said Takahashi.

The scientists hypothesized that isoflurane could reduce the number of releasable vesicles by either directly blocking the process of vesicle release by exocytosis, or by indirectly blocking vesicle recycling, where vesicles are reformed by endocytosis and then refilled with neurotransmitter, ready to be released again.

By electrically measuring the changes in the surface area of the presynaptic terminal membrane, which is increased by exocytosis and decreased by endocytosis, the scientists concluded that isoflurane only affected vesicle release by exocytosis, likely by blocking exocytic machinery.

Crucially, we found that this block only had a major effect on high frequency signals, suggesting that this block on exocytic machinery is the key to isofluranes anesthetizing effect, said Takahashi.

The scientists proposed that high frequency action potentials trigger such a massive influx of calcium into the presynaptic terminal that isoflurane cannot effectively reduce the calcium concentration. Synaptic strength is therefore weakened predominantly by the direct block of exocytic machinery rather than a reduced probability of vesicle release.

Meanwhile, low frequency impulses trigger less exocytosis, so isofluranes block on exocytic machinery has little effect. Although isoflurane effectively reduces entry of calcium into the presynaptic terminal, lowering the probability of vesicle release, by itself, is not powerful enough to block postsynaptic action potentials at the calyx of Held and has only a minor effect in cortico-cortical synapses. Low frequency transmission is therefore maintained.

Overall, the series of experiments provide compelling evidence to how isoflurane weakens synapses to induce anesthesia.

Now that we have established techniques of manipulating and deciphering presynaptic mechanisms, we are ready to apply these techniques to tougher questions, such as presynaptic mechanisms underlying symptoms of neurodegenerative diseases, said Takahashi. That will be our next challenge.

This article has been republished from the following materials. Note: material may have been edited for length and content. For further information, please contact the cited source.

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Scientists Reveal How General Anesthesia Works in the Brain - Technology Networks

Embryology

COVID-19 interrupts fertility plans for hopeful couples in the United Kingdom – PRI

Thousands of women may lose out on their chance to have a baby because of COVID-19. Fertility clinics across Britain shut their doors in mid-April, pausing in vitro fertilization (IVF) treatment for many women midcycle. The decision has left thousands in limbo. No one knows when the clinics will open up again and for those who have spent years trying to conceive the closure is a cruel blow.

As lockdowns began, jokes were made about the baby boom in nine months' time. But its hard for some to see the funny side if they'vebeen trying for a baby for years. Anita Brien in Hull, in northeast England, has tried to conceive forfive years; Sian Brindlow in southern England has tried to conceive for 12 years. For these women, the quips can wear them down. Brien whos 34, blocked some social media accounts because it was too upsetting to read the jokes. Comments by parents on Facebook about the trials of home-schooling have left her feeling empty, too.

Related:Mourning in the midst of a pandemic

I'd love to be getting annoyed with my children right now. I'd love to be not understanding the work that the school has sent home, but I can't because I don't have those children, she said.

Brien was only three days into her first IVF treatment when she received a text last monthtelling her to stop taking her medication. Her fertility clinic was closing down because of the coronavirus. Even though she was in the early stage of the cycle, Brien was heartbroken. After so many negative pregnancy tests, the IVF treatment had been the first positive step in her hope of having a baby.

This was really positive, something really practical was going tohappen. So, I was completely devastated, she said.

But Brien, an events fundraiser, is practical, too. Her partner Matt is a paramedic and hes seen the close-upimpact of the virus.

As women across Britain began to receive the news that their treatments were being canceled, the Fertility Network, a national charity for people dealing with fertility issues, was inundated with calls. The organization's chief executive, Gwenda Burns, said women were distressed not just because their IVF was stopped, but because nobody could offer any guidance on what the next stage would be. But she thinks theHuman Fertilisation and Embryology Authority, the British regulatory body, made the right call to order the clinics closure.

I think for the safety of patients, the safety of embryos and of NHS [National Health Service] staff,there was no other actual way this could be done, Burns said.

We don't know how many months were going to have to wait now and, you know, we hear all these miracle stories of people conceiving well into their 40s. But that's what they are. They are miracles. They don't happen to everybody."

In Britain, women are entitled to a number of free fertility treatmentsunder the NHSbut it varies depending on age and where they live. Sian Brindlow, a teacher in West Sussex, was on her third IVF cycle when she got the call saying her treatment needed to be postponed.

Like Brien, Brindlowunderstands the need to pause treatment, but worries about the time passing.

We don't know how many months were going to have to wait now and, you know, we hear all these miracle stories of people conceiving well into their 40s. But that's what they are. They are miracles. They don't happen to everybody, she said.

Related:Many people arent putting love on hold during COVID-19

Brindlow says trying to have a baby has dominated her life and that of her husband Nick for over a decade. She says they naively thought it would just happen. Undergoing IVF treatment, she said, also gradually takes over your life.

You know, your evenings are injections, your hormones are not your own. You can't plan any weekend breaks, you cant plan any holidays."

Kirsty Duncan, 32, who lives in Cheshire, understands how all-consuming the experience can be. She says she is at the stage where many of her friends are getting pregnant, and she cant help wondering when her time will come.

It's an incredibly lonely place to be as a couple because, you know, you've got friends that are announcing pregnancies left, right and center. And you thinkwhy is it so easy for them? And it's not for us?

Duncan, an early career manager and her husband, Adam, areopen about their difficulties trying to conceive. Duncan posts updates on her Instagram account of their journey so far and says the communityis hugely supportive. But she says some couples are very reluctant to discuss their fertility issues and wonders if it might comedown to being British.

I thinkthere's this kind of British uneasiness about talking about something to do with sex, especially if your sex organs don't work. Its like well, if they're talking about IVF,that means they must have had sex at some point in their life. And that's just that's too distasteful for us to talk about."

I thinkthere's this kind of British uneasiness about talking about something to do with sex, especially if your sex organs don't work. Its like, well, if they're talking about IVF,that means they must have had sex at some point in their life. And that's just that's too distasteful for us to talk about, she laughed.

It might also have to do with the advice people seem determined to dish out. Duncan says shes heard countless suggestions about how she just needs to calm down and everything will work out fine.

There's so many people that I know will just say, 'You just need to go on holiday. Get a dog, get drunk.' I would say the worst thing is when people say just relax.

Related:Countries herald lifting of coronavirus lockdowns, but UK says not yet

Trying to remain calm while dealing with fertility issues during a pandemic is a challenge. But its not the biggest issue on Briens mind right now. She has another slightly unexpected concern. Chocolate.

My biggest worry is how much chocolate I'm going toeat over the next few months, she said.

It might sound frivolous, but there is a good reason for this. The NHSin Britain only funds your IVF treatment if your body mass index is under a certain number, and Brien, like most people right now, is trying not to comfort eat her way through the lockdown.

For many women, the pandemic is a reminder of just how little control theyhave over their lives. Brindlow says she is now leaving it up to fate to decide whether shell be a mother someday. If it's not meant to be, thats OK, too, she said.

We've had a lot of time just us two. You know, I only want kids with him, I don't want them with anyone else. And I know it sounds twee, but, you know, I'm really lucky I do have the love of my life. ... Not everyone has that.

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COVID-19 interrupts fertility plans for hopeful couples in the United Kingdom - PRI

Human Behavior

‘We can’t go back to life as it was.’ Whitmer ‘hopeful’ Legislature will extend State of Emergency – WXYZ

(WXYZ) In a one-on-one interview with 7 Action News, Governor Gretchen Whitmer discussed the state's effort to reopen the economy while mitigating the spread of COVID-19.

Whitmer noted that officials are going to have to measure every step of the way in order to reopen sectors of the economy.

"As we reengage a sector of our economy, we've got to watch and make sure we don't have another increase in cases," she said.

She said the state cannot put a hard and fast timeline on re-opening the economy.

"A lot of this depends on human behavior," she said. "No one's as eager to keep turning that dial forward as I am. We have taken a deep dive into the data and assessed risks, so when it is safe to dial it up, we will be prepared.

The governor noted that offices are densely populated areas, and said people who are currently working from home should plan to continue.

Regarding the upcoming standoff with the Legislature, Whitmer said she is "hopeful" they will extend the state of emergency.

"We can't go back to life as it was," she said. "We could have a second wave of COVID-19 and it could necessitate a second stay-at-home order."

On Monday, Attorney General William Barr directed federal prosecutors across the country to be on the lookout for state and local coronavirus-related restrictions that could be unconstitutional.

Whitmer said Michigan's unique situation with COVID-19 required aggressive action.

"Michiganders did the right thing," she said. "We took this seriously and saved lives in the process."

"We can save lives and adhere to the spirit of the constitution," she said.

Ten workers, who are regional coordinators for the Military Veterans Affairs Agency, say they won't have a job come May 15 due to budget cuts. They've said they are concerned about the veterans they help.

Whitmer noted that the budget cuts were a decision made at the department level and she is concerned about them.

She also said state government will have to make a lot of tough decisions.

"It is my hope that those aren't long-term cuts that have been made and that the needs of our veterans can be met one way or another," she said.

Additionally, Whitmer said she does not know what college students can expect come fall.

"What I do know is that we have to be really smart about how we re-engage," she said.

She noted that events and activities that have a lot of people in one closed-in space will probably be the last to come online safely. She said universities and colleges are doing an "incredible" amount of work to understand the pandemic and make decisions.

FEMA Region 5 Administrator James Joseph said he thinks there will be several months ahead for FEMA to work in response and recovery. Joseph said FEMA will continue to plan and be prepared for whatever it is Michigan needs.

Whitmer said the state's hope is that FEMA can leave Michigan when it's safe, but that they don't leave too early.

"We've really got to be smart and avoid the second wave at all costs," she said. "None of us want to be back here come August or September. I'd love to see FEMA leave and not come back, and that's precisely why we have to get this right.

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'We can't go back to life as it was.' Whitmer 'hopeful' Legislature will extend State of Emergency - WXYZ