Physiology

What the Future of Fast Marathons Looks Like – Outside Magazine

In the Journal of Applied Physiology last month, four influential researchers broke down the science of marathoningwhere it stands, how we got here, and where were headed. As they pointed out, were at an interesting moment in the sports history. Eliud Kipchoge set the current mens record of 2:01:39 in 2018, and Brigid Kosgei set the womens mark of 2:14:04 in 2019, continuing a period of unusually rapid progress. Check out the percentage improvement in world records since 1999 in a range of long-distance running events:

(Illustration: Journal of Applied Physiology)

The scientistsMichael Joyner of the Mayo Clinic, Sandra Hunter of Marquette University, Alejandro Lucia of Universidad Europea de Madrid, and Andrew Jones of the University of Exeteroutline the basic model of marathon physiology, in which performance depends on three key traits: maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max); sustainable intensity (which is closely linked to lactate threshold); and running economy (a measure of efficiency). Then they discuss which factors may have affected these three traits to enable the recent boom in fast marathon running, including genetics, body shapes, training, drugs, and of course shoes.

Its interesting stuffbut what really caught my attention was the 17 pages of responses from 35 different groups of other researchers that the journal also published. If you really want to get a sense of the full diversity of what endurance researchers are interested in these days, scanning these responses is a great start. Most of the ideas are at least somewhat familiar, but a few are unexpected. Heres a sampling of some of the themes that cropped up in these responses:

This is the one that came from farthest out of left field, at least for me. A trio of researchers in Germany led by Laura Hottenrott of Ruhr University (herself a 2:33 marathoner) suggest that matching strides with the runners around you enables you to run more efficiently, burning less energy and thus finishing faster.

Is this real? Its certainly true that we tend to instinctively sync up with runners around us, and it also appears that various other patterns among cadence, heart rate, and breathing seem to emerge spontaneously. But following the references from Hottenrotts letter doesnt reveal any smoking-gun evidence that it significantly improves running economy. Classify it as highly speculative for nowbut, for fun, imagine a future where the pacemakers at major marathons are selected based on having similar leg length and cadence to the top contenders, in order to maximize the probability of synching strides.

At least three different responses, from French, Danish, and Brazilian researchers, focused on the role of brain oxygen. Running a fast marathon takes a lot of brain power, particularly in the prefrontal cortex, to integrate information, make decisions, and resist the urge to slow downand that brain power requires a lot of oxygen. Theres some evidence that oxygen levels in the brain begin to drop during all-out exercise, and intriguingly, it appears that top Kenyan runners are unusually good at maintaining sufficient brain oxygen.

So how do you improve neural efficiency? It may be that some runners are able to basically turn their minds off and run on autopilot during races, reducing their brains oxygen needs. They may also be some external circumstances that make it easier to keep thinking to a minimum, like reliable pacemakers and a familiar and well-signed coursethink, for example, of the set-up for Kipchoges sub-two attempts. This, too, is pretty speculative, but whats neat is that brain-imaging studies are starting to put some of these ideas to the test.

In the main paper by Joyner and his colleagues, they present some evidence that VO2 max and lactate threshold havent changed dramatically compared to previous generations of runners. So the big changes seem to be happening to running economy. Indeed, according to a response from University of Colorado physiologist Rodger Kram, measurements of economy in elite runners show an improvement of roughly 26 percent over the past 90 years.

No one is entirely sure how running economy has improved or whether it can improve further, though. One response suggests strength training; another suggests plyometrics; another focuses on mitochondrial efficiency and other microscopic properties of muscle fibers. Maybe its biomechanics, or high mileage, or being born Kenyan. Or maybe, several commenters pointedly suggest, its all about shoe technology. This is a longstanding debate, but is far from settled.

If we really want to figure out how to improve running economy, we first have to ensure were actually measuring it correctly. A comment from University of British Columbia researcher (and Olympic steeplechaser) Shalaya Kipp highlights some methodological issues like the appropriate speed and slope of the treadmill. The most intriguing point: how stiff is the treadmill deck? Good research-grade treadmills are firm like the roads; typical health-club treadmills, as Dutch researcher Bas Van Hooren recently pointed out, are soft and bouncy. So what happens when a study measures running economy in a shoe with a carefully tuned amount of bounce, like the Vaporfly, using a treadmill with additional bounce? The results are meaningless. This is something to watch out for when youre reading research about the latest shoes.

Take two video clips of a runner at mile 1 and mile 25 of a marathon. Do you think youd have any trouble guessing which was which? Fatigue takes a visible toll on you, and it probably takes an invisible toll too. The key point raised by a pair of Slovenian researchers is that any calculations based on VO2 max, lactate threshold, and running economy are based on values measured when the runner is fresh. But all three likely change over the course of a marathon, so understanding the fatigue-induced dynamics of a runners physiology becomes crucial. Maybe Kipchoge is so great not because he has amazing running economy, but because he has an amazing ability to sustain his running economy even when fatigued.

A more subtle point is that these variables also change from day to day based on training and recovery status. The lactate threshold you measure a few weeks before your race will not be identical to the lactate threshold you have on the starting line. What factors determine whether the latter value is better or worse than the former?

A comment from a group in Spain led by Jordan Santos-Concejero explores the eternal puzzle of optimal pacing. Ive written about some of the research from this group before, which reveals an interesting contrast between the pacing of pre-1988 marathon world records, which tended to start quickly and then tail off, and post-1999 records, which tended to start a little more conservatively and then speed up after 25K. The more recent records also tended to have a more even overall pace, with fewer unusually fast or slow 5K segments. That points to a future of hyper-optimized pacingbut does that necessarily mean even pacing, or does the recent trend of speeding up in the second half make more sense? The answer to that question will depend in part on the previous point about how and why things like lactate threshold and running economy change with fatigue.

Your VO2 max typically starts dropping by about 1 percent per year after the age of 25. Elite athletes can fight this curve for a while, but the clock is ticking. On the other hand, long periods of intense training (perhaps along with other factors like strength training and plyometrics) can gradually increase running economy. Paula Radcliffe, for example, managed to increase her economy by 15 percent between 18 and 29 years of age. So the sweet spot, according to Mayo Clinic researcher Jonathon Senefeld, is dictated by the compromise between those two factors.

There are other factors affecting the age of marathon champions, like the steady increase in the popularity of marathons. As a group from Pepperdine University points out, the resulting boom in prize money has lured more top runners to the distance, and kept them in the sport for longer. Its pretty hard to draw conclusions from the latest records: Kipchoge was 33.8, while Kosgei was just 25.6. On paper, youd have to guess that Kosgei is far more likely to have more records up her sleeveespecially since no one knows how long it will be before professional marathoning makes its return. But if theres one thing Ive learned from the past few years, its to never bet against Kipchoge.

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What the Future of Fast Marathons Looks Like - Outside Magazine

Physiology

Menstrual cycle affects two-thirds of female rugby internationals, research shows – The Telegraph

Female international rugby players say their athletic performance has been negatively affected due to menstrual cycle symptoms, according to a recent groundbreaking study.

Researchers from the University of the West of Scotland carried out a series of in-depth interviews with international-level players providing an insight into athletes experiences of the menstrual cycle, the associated impact on training and competition and the differences the team environment can make. More than two-thirds of those questioned admitted to seeing their performance levels dip.

The symptoms reported were variable and included painful menstruation, heavy bleeding, anxiety, reduced energy levels, distraction and reduced motivation.

It is the first time that a study of this kind has been conducted, not just for female rugby players but also fora team sport setting. Previous research into the impact of the menstrual cycle on female athletes had centred on individual athletes, undertaken in a survey format.

Speaking to Telegraph Sport, Dr Laura Forrest, a lecturer in physiology at the University of the West of Scotland, stressed the importance of looking at athletes within a team environment.

In an individual sport, someone who is struggling with pain can reduce their training load for that day but that is not always possible in a team environment, she said.

People have to have the understanding that at some point in their cycle, co-ordination might go. Or they could be feeling a lack of motivation, they could be feeling heavy and sore and distracted and that is going to happen at different times with different people. In a team environment, you have to have that awareness and lack of judgement.

If the athletes have the awareness they can say to themselves, I am not a terrible player, it is just a phase and in a couple of days I will be back on track. Then from a coaching perspective, it is about having an awareness of why things are happening. Froma team perspective, it is certainly more complicated to deal with and you have a lot more athletes to understand.

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Menstrual cycle affects two-thirds of female rugby internationals, research shows - The Telegraph

Physiology

Does Reading the News Lead to Less Anxiety Than Watching It? – PRNewswire

ATLANTA, May 18, 2020 /PRNewswire/ --Morethan two months into the COVID-19 pandemic people are starting to get antsy for a return to normalcy. Rami Odeh (Oh-DAY), an author, certified exercise physiologist, personal trainer and corporate presenter, has found that his corporate clients are now seeking his advice on coping strategies they can offer their employees to lessen information overload and feelings of isolation.

Odeh, who is also an on- and off-road marathoner, says, "Surviving in the age of COVID-19 is akin to running a marathon and there are five daily steps you can take to train for living in pandemic times."

The author of the three-volume series Quiet The Noiseis telling his clients to practice these moves.

About Rami OdehRami Odeh founded FormWell Personal Fitness Training, a personal training company in Sandy Springs, Ga., he sold last year. His main focus since the 1990s is motivational speaking and coaching. He earned master's degrees in industrial psychology and exercise physiology and is a certified exercise physiologist through the American College of Sports Medicine. Odeh worked as an exercise physiologist in the Outpatient Weight Reduction Clinic and the Diabetes Education Department of Northside Hospital in Atlanta.

Odeh frequently gives presentations on health topics to corporate audiences and other organizations in Georgia.

As an amateur triathlete, obstacle course racerand trail runner, he has completed over 300 running races, obstacle course races, and multisport events since 1992. His current challenge is running off-road ultra-marathons

Contact: Rami Odeh, (770) 773-6970; [emailprotected]; https://coachrami.com/author

SOURCE Rami Odeh

http://coachrami.com/author

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Does Reading the News Lead to Less Anxiety Than Watching It? - PRNewswire

Physiology

May: Athena Swan Awards | News and features – University of Bristol

The School of Earth Sciences, School for Policy Studies and School of Physiology, Pharmacology, and Neuroscience have achieved Athena SWAN awards.

The School of Earth Sciences has achieved a Silver Athena SWAN award, the School for Policy Studies has achieved a Bronze Athena SWAN award, and the School of Physiology, Pharmacology, and Neuroscience has achieved a Bronze Athena SWAN award.

The Athena SWAN Charter recognises achievements and progress towards gender equality. Athena SWAN gives universities the tools to evaluate and improve their work in advancing the careers of women and achieving gender parity at all levels of seniority.

The School of Earth Sciences has achieved a coveted Silver Athena SWAN award, which recognises the impact the Schools actions, initiatives, and policies have made on gender equality.

In 2015, the Athena SWAN Charter was expanded to cover AHSSBL (Arts, Humanities, Social Sciences and Law) subjects as well as STEMM subjects (Science, Technology, Engineering, Maths, and Medicine). The School of Policy Studies is the second AHSSBL School within the University to achieve an Athena SWAN award of any level.

Professor Judith Squires, Deputy Vice-Chancellor and Provost, said: It is excellent to see our commitment to equality recognised in these latest Athena SWAN awards for the Schools of Earth Sciences, Policy Studies, and Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience. This is a fantastic achievement, and testament to the great teamwork of colleagues in these schools. We now have 10 Bronze awards and 6 Silver Awards. I look forward to further future successes.

Professor Rich Pancost, Head of the School of Earth Sciences said: One of the reasons for our success has been the appointment and promotion of women, such that we nearly have gender balance at every level of our academic, technical and professional staff; over 40% of our professors are women.

"However, the other reason for our success was an honest assessment of what work remained. Diversity is not the same as equity, and we are committed to better communication and more transparent decision-making with all members of our community. Moreover, our School like our wider discipline comprises a very low proportion of BAME students and staff; changing that will require renewed effort in all of our activities, including engaging more diverse young people, better supporting our BAME students and creating a more inclusive environment.

Dr Jeremy Phillips, EDI Lead for the School of Earth Sciences, added: We are very pleased to have been awarded Athena SWAN Silver. This award recognises the Schools continued commitment to Equality, Diversity and Inclusion, and reflects substantial efforts by all in the School to embed these principles into our everyday activities and culture. This includes co-developing with all staff in the school transparent workload models, mentoring schemes and support for research staff, School policies including scheduling of committee meetings and hosting inclusive social events, and the promotion of female role models within the School, at public events, and online. We believe that a culture valuing equality, diversity and inclusion improves the working environment for all.

Professor Esther Dermott, Head of Policy Studies, said: "I am delighted to accept this award on behalf of the School and would like to thank our self-evaluation team and members of the School more widely for their hard work on our application. The process has allowed us to reflect on how far our commitment to gender equality has been formalised and embedded within the School and consider the potential for future improvement in challenging gendered inequalities."

Professor Hugh Piggins, Head of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience said: I am delighted that our efforts and commitment to Equality, Diversity and Inclusion (EDI) in the School have continued to be recognised in this Bronze award. Our efforts are focused on embedding equality in everything we do as a School and have invested in dedicated resources to make sure we can continue to build on what we are already doing. Preparing an application for an Athena SWAN award is a considerable amount of work and the School is very grateful for the efforts of our self-evaluation team and in particular, the School's EDI lead and our newly appointed EDI officer, for making this happen.

Advance HEs Athena SWAN Charter was established in 2005 to encourage and recognise commitment to advancing the careers of women in science, technology, engineering, maths and medicine (STEMM) employment in higher education and research.

In May 2015 the charter was expanded to recognise work undertaken in arts, humanities, social sciences, business and law (AHSSBL), and in professional and support roles, and for trans staff and students. The charter now recognises work undertaken to address gender equality more broadly, and not just barriers to progression that affect women.

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May: Athena Swan Awards | News and features - University of Bristol

Physiology

Dr Eva Carneiro: It’s dangerous for football to return we’re talking about loss of life – The Times

English football must not rush back until it understands the long-term risks of Covid-19 on players physiology, according to Dr Eva Carneiro, the sports specialist who includes elite footballers among her patients at her practice in Harley Street, London. We are talking about loss of life here, Carneiro warns.

Premier League shareholders hold another video-conference today to discuss Project Restart, including phase one, this weeks return to training sanctioned by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport.

My message to them is we cannot talk about returning to full-time competition when we havent even delivered phase one, Carneiro says. We need to learn and adapt from phase one first and Im most concerned that the guidance does not consider the culture of football and

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Dr Eva Carneiro: It's dangerous for football to return we're talking about loss of life - The Times

Physiology

Transphobia in sport: Misconceptions and the media – Sports Media LGBT+

As the world marks IDAHOBIT 2020 amid increasing LGBTphobia, how can the media help trans people in sport who want to share their stories?

By Jon Holmes

Every year, the International Day Against Homophobia, Transphobia and Biphobia on May 17 receives greater acknowledgement around the globe.

The theme for 2020 is Breaking The Silence, reflecting the need to hear from more LGBT+ voices in society, and to empower them to share their truths and lived experiences. For the media, that should mean telling more stories in print, on digital, on TV and radio, and in podcasts, to provide important representation and to let those who might be struggling with their sexual orientation or gender identity know that theyre not alone.

Since Sports Media LGBT+ started up two-and-a-half years ago, weve striven to amplify lesbian, gay, bi, and trans voices and those of allies too. We continue to listen to those who might not otherwise be heard. We offer the chance to be part of a wider conversation, framed responsibly, on our own channels; on the platforms available to our network members, such as BBC Sport, Sky Sports, and other publishers; and via our partners and connections. We recognise that LGBT+ narratives are rarely simple and straightforward, and that nuances need time and space to be explained in full.

However, we recognise that for many LGBT+ people in sport, its not an attractive proposition to be visible and vocal in the media. Thats even more true for members of the trans community. Discussions around inclusion, fairness, and the motivations of trans athletes frequently play out on social media and in more traditional media. Examples are provided from specific sports in support of an argument, and while some of these examples are backed up by science and research, others are not often because the science and research isnt yet available for certain scenarios.

For the general sports fan who may not have read widely around the subject of trans inclusion, or who may be unfamiliar with policies or regulations, it can be a confusing landscape, littered with sweeping statements. There is a pressing need for robust, well-funded studies. These will benefit the media too data and metrics will give greater clarity and can help to prevent good-faith discussions from sliding towards transphobia.

Dr Gemma Witcomb is the Senior Lecturer in Psychology at Loughborough University where she leads the Gender and Sport Centre for Doctoral Training. The Centre is exploring trans inclusion in sport through a number of focused projects, including the physiology of athletes; variations in international policies; the experiences of non-binary people; and the effects of media coverage.

Its groundbreaking and important work. As yet, there is no full and complete study of long-term hormone use for trans people, and none specifically in trans athletes. While some studies are underway in Europe with trans people seeking hormone therapy, the results wont be available for some time. Meanwhile, an extensive set of varied physiological studies will be needed too.

Dr Witcomb was among the contributors to Martina Navratilovas BBC documentary Trans Athletes: A Fair Playing Field? which aired a year ago. I spoke to her to better understand how transphobia is contributing to the silence of trans athletes, and how that silence is preventing academics from obtaining the research that will help to improve policy and cultures in sport

JH: Dr Witcomb, whats the main focus for trans inclusion in sport and how is the Centre approaching that?

GW: Really, there are two different things going on. There is elite sport, where its mostly about physiology and whats fair and whats not fair we have to address that, and we are. But what I think is touching more peoples lives, is at more of a grassroots level. Were exploring this from a multi-disciplinary perspective its not all about physiology, or looking at a particular population or methodology. Weve got a range of projects that are looking at all different kinds of issues, but all of them are centered around trans and non-binary peoples experiences in sport.

What tends to determine whether someone in sport will exhibit transphobic behaviour or not?

We know a lot about transphobia generally, and peoples experiences of that things that might be said or done. Its useful to understand why this happens. I did a project looking at cisgender athletes and what their internal motivations are. There are lots of different measures that sports scientists use to look at what drives a person how they attribute success or failure, for example. Do they attribute it to personal factors about themselves or to some outside factors? How you manage that can affect your psychological processing, and that processing then has a big impact on you and your performance.

We talk about Achievement Goal Theory. When youre doing a sport or a task, whats your main driving factor? You can get the personal goals type of motivation striving for success in competition and then theres more of an ego thing, the feeling of I want to win and I want to be the best. Thats obviously important and will be there in elite athletes. But that ego motivation is highly related to unsportsmanlike behaviour as well. People who hold that motivation highest are often those who are more likely to dope and things like that, because that desire to win can introduce all kinds of bad things in the pursuit of winning.

The study looked at athletes in different measures of motivation, which included beliefs about sex and gender. In men, there was nothing much of any particular interest; but in women, transphobia was associated and significantly predicted by this ego / win type of motivation. That suggests we dont see that in men because theyre not threatened in the same way by trans people participating, whereas women are and if you hold these higher ego threat motivations, youre more likely to have transphobic views. That makes sense because youre reacting to what you perceive as being a threat.

So thats where the work really needs to come in, and it links back to physiology. Its only by negating that belief that theres a threat that were going to calm down some of the transphobia because at the moment, its driven by real fear that this is not fair. The data helps puts that into perspective.

As far as the media is concerned, how can we create conversations about being trans in sport that arent dominated by fear?

Often theres a misunderstanding it might be genuine or introduced on purpose whereby people assume that what youre talking about is someone who identifies as a trans woman rocking up and playing against women having had no intervention whatsoever. That is not the case.

If you said that to someone, most peoples reaction will be oh my god, yes, thats not fair but to be a trans woman in sport, youll have to have been on hormones for a number of years. Anecdotally and looking at other measures of performance, you can see that causes performance to go down. These trans women might still be taller and have bigger skeletons but they certainly dont have the muscle mass and dont have the power behind them. Their bodies have had significant changes.

The other thing is that there will never be a blanket rule for all sports, because sports are different. Some of those might be positive for trans women to be part of, and some of them might not be. A grassroots team might even include a trans woman who is earlier on in her transition at that level, its generally an accepted thing because people know each other well and its not about winning a league.

Whenever we talk about sport, its often framed around competition so this can lead to misconceptions. For a trans person wanting to be involved in sport whether thats participating or spectating its less to do with winning, its the other things. Maybe its hanging out with certain people, and the social support and the psychological feedback; maybe its because it keeps you fit, and that feeling of strength is quite motivating and youre not overweight so youre not worrying about your health.

So from that perspective, why would anybody want to deny that to somebody, on the basis of how they identify? Its no threat to them. Its no threat to me if the person sat three spaces away from me supporting my team is trans, why would I care? Or if the person in my gym class is trans, why do I care? What am I gaining from keeping them out of that space? I think theres a lot to be said for trying to focus these conversations, and move peoples attention onto what we get out of sport that isnt just about winning or losing.

As for the suggestion that theres all these trans women out there just waiting to join sport so that they can win everything its just ridiculous. I mean, youve got to fundamentally like sport in the first place.

One of the stories I got the chance to work on last year was with the cricketer Maxine Blythin, who talked about a birth condition she had. The reaction was almost entirely positive

Some of the analysis we did of media and it tallies with Maxines story shows that when people think theres a biological problem and thats why theyre trans, people can get on board with that a little bit more. It fits into this biological model that you just have men and women, and sometimes it goes a bit wrong in the middle. When you have people that dont have that background and identify as trans, other people struggle with that.

The diagnosis for being transgender used to be a lot more medical and its changed somewhat over the years. Some older trans people dont really agree with that, and this has been interpreted as a kind of almost internal transphobia. Some people want and need a biological reason to say this has gone wrong with me, thats why Im trans, but other people dont want that label. Part of having that biological reasoning fits into this medical model of justifying it. almost in a way that allows cis people to go, OK then, its not your fault. Its interesting.

I think the misconception of what it means to be trans is still massively rife and it needs people to tell their stories. Now and again, people might know of a trans person and that person is then put on a separate pedestal theyre OK and I understand them but I dont understand the rest. So the more voices you have, the more that pool of people becomes bigger.

How was your experience of being part of Martinas documentary?

I was a bit reluctant but I thought theres nothing else out there and weve got an opportunity to put something positive in that space. I was pleasantly surprised when I saw it, because it was made really quickly. They were suggesting experiments we could do but we had to explain it would constitute two years worth of work, it couldnt just be pulled out of the bag in three days.

From the conversations we had with Martina off camera, I do think she learned a lot. The only thing I was disappointed with was that almost every trans person that was featured was a trans person pre hormones. I imagine some viewers were sitting at home saying they shouldnt be allowed to play because those people havent had any hormones which would have attenuated their performance.

That goes back to the general reluctance of trans women to tell their stories publicly, especially in sport, and be interviewed about it

This is whats often forgotten that someone who is trans will have been struggling most likely for many years. Taking that decision to transition is massive, and coming out is massive too, let alone then trying to do that in a sporting area. Thats why we have such problems with mental health in the trans community. To think youd do all that and youre fine and then youre going to decide to play on that team because you want to win theres so much more going on.

Stories about being trans in sport are tricky to communicate because its so complex, on so many levels. However, sport is such a positive experience for so many reasons and we want to encourage people to be active too.

The topic wont go away but the media should strive to be more constructive in its approach. That can only benefit womens sport, right?

When youre looking at the elite level, you can still see the difference between mens and womens sport in terms of funding, sponsorship, and spectators. There are the silly things too if you took female tennis players, the players that get the best sponsors still tend to be the prettiest ones, not necessarily the best players.

There are some quite vocal female athletes now, who are concerned about womens sport. Thats understandable its taken many years to get to where it is. But the misogyny around sport is much more of a problem than trans people in sport.

Thank you to Dr Gemma Witcomb for this Q&A. You can follow the Gender and Sport Centre for Doctoral Training at Loughborough University on Twitter at @LboroTGDSport, and see the School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences webpage for more information and contact details.

If youre interested in learning more about the work of Sports Media LGBT+ in helping trans and non-binary people access the media, please contact us here.

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Transphobia in sport: Misconceptions and the media - Sports Media LGBT+

Physiology

Remaking the Indian Military for Women : Beyond the Babita Puniya Judgment – Economic and Political Weekly

The Supreme Court of Indias decision in The Secretary, Ministry of Defence v Babita Puniya and Others (2020) is being widely hailed as a victory for women officers in their fight against gender discrimination as well as an enforcement of their right to equality of opportunity and equal access to appointment and engagement in the Indian Army. The division bench of the Supreme Court comprising Justice D Y Chandrachud and Justice Ajay Rastogi proclaimed in unequivocal terms:

The time has come for a realization that women officers in the Army are not adjuncts to a male dominated establishment whose presence must be tolerated within narrow confines. (The Secretary, Ministry of Defence v Babita Puniya and Others 2020: para 57)

The nature of military institutions in Indiaboth the structures and processesare extremely masculine, having been male-dominated. So much so that it is men who have designed, constituted and operated the military from their own point of view since time immemorial. Simply put, the military as we know it has always been for, by, and of men.

The womens question, with respect to the military, includes crucial matters pertaining to appointments, posts, service categories, cadres, remuneration and criteria for grant of Permanent Commission to Short Service Commission (SSC) officers. These matters invite limited judicial review because they constitute policy decisions and lie exclusively in the domain of executive functions as per Section 12 of the Army Act, 1950 and Article 33 of the Constitution. No wonder, the Union of India contended before the Supreme Court that restrictions on the employability of women in the army were inescapable due to the peculiar operational compulsions of the Army.

The Womens Question

Womens position in the Indian military has been distressing with respect to the availing of the bundle of benefits, facilities, and privileges that were accessible to only men till now. Women had no pension benefits, no ex-service personnel status, no ex-service personnel contributory health benefits, no provision for re-employment, and a meagre encashment of only 90 days leave compared to 300 days for men. Among the 40,825 officers in the Indian Army, there are some 1,653 women officers. Further, there are about 11,500 officer vacancies in the Indian Army, with hundreds of officers being re-employed after retirement, but none of them are women (The Secretary, Ministry of Defence v Babita Puniya and Others 2020: paras 37, 42[iv], 42[viii]). What is the cause and justification for this gross gender mismatch in the officer strength as well as the prevailing shortage of officers in the army?

With this reality before us, two questions arise. How can the typical male standards of the military be used to test the military readiness of females? How can biological standards be used as the sole threshold to exclude females from being inducted to the military fold? For example, as per the Ministry of Defence, the Government of Indias communication dated 25 February 2019, SSC women officers would be considered for the grant of Permanent Commission based on their willingness, suitability, performance, medical fitness and competitive merit (The Secretary, Ministry of Defence v Babita Puniya and Others 2020: para 22). It is pertinent to note that these criteria are extremely subjective in nature, generally construed in light of the image of an ideal male officer as well as masculine standards, and are left to be interpreted by the male officers of the Indian Army. No wonder, women form a minuscule 4% of the total strength of commissioned officers in the army (The Secretary, Ministry of Defence v Babita Puniya and Others 2020: para 38).

Although the womens question is raised from a supposedly neutral standpoint, in reality, the presentation of the womens question in the military, just like the institution itself, is the work product of men. The gender-blind approach of the military is quite problematic because this so-called claim of neutrality is often a cover for the typically male-oriented and discriminatory military policies and practices (Davies 2017: 22397). Then, how do we appropriately raise and present the womens question in the military context?

We cannot erase crucial biological differences that exist between men and women. Also, overlooking substantive differences between men and women would be an incorrect and inappropriate approach. An express acknowledgement, open acceptance, and a careful study of the unique characteristics of womens physiology and psychology should be the starting point. The one-size-fits-all approach cannot work effectively when it comes to the military as an institution. Rather, the prevailing circumstances, biological needs, and social vulnerabilities of women must be studied, and the military policy and practices be rethought, redesigned, and retuned accordingly, to accommodate Her.

Equality of opportunity does not mean invisibilising and completely ignoring differing features and unique characteristics existing among human beings. On the contrary, the concept of substantive equality of opportunity means to acknowledge as well as accept human beings along with their differences; embrace them all without discrimination and accommodate one and all within theinstitutional fold (The Secretary, Ministry of Defence v Babita Puniya and Others 2020: paras 5256; Davies 2017: 230). Ironically, even after a 49-week rigorous training period, same as their SSC male counterparts, female officers have been deprived of their legitimate dues solely based on their physiology (The Secretary, Ministry of Defence v Babita Puniya and Others 2020: para 13).

Transcending Biology

At this juncture, it is pertinent to transcend the realm of biology because, by its understanding alone, we would never be able to answer the womens question properly. As Simone De Beauvoir (1972: Chapter 1) has very aptly reasoned:

We must view the facts of biology in light of an ontological, economic, social and psychological context. The enslavement of the female to the species and the limitations of her various powers are extremely important facts; the body of woman is one of the essential elements in her situation in the world. But that body is not enough to define her as a woman; there is no true living reality except as manifested by the conscious individual through activities and in the bosom of a society.

As such, the state and society in India must realise and understand that physiological traits described in the terminology of weakness and strength are actually representative of social conditioning and patriarchal viewpoints rather than real barriers in the achievement of human potential. Unfortunately, these notions of being male and female and the ideas of the physiological limitations of females are so deeply embedded in us that they are inextricable from our personalities, institutions, and processes. Probably, that is the reason why it has taken years for the male officer brass in the Indian Army to extend the tenure of engagement for women from five years in 1992, to 10 years in 1996, to ultimately 14 years in 2005.

The Supreme Court in the Babita Puniya case observed that through the grant of Permanent Commission as well as leadership roles to women in the Indian Army except in combat roles, the Government of India had recognised that the physiological features of a woman have no significance to equal entitlements under the Constitution.

Womens employability in combat roles has also been the prerogative of males who do not think that women are capable of performing as well as their male counterparts in the Indian Army. No wonder women have been restricted to ancillary categories like Combat Support Arms and Service. Although 30% of all women officers in the Indian Army have been posted in combat zonessensitive places and field areaswhere they have, in the past, performed combat roles when the situation demanded, the institution fails to formally acknowledge their combat readiness and further rejects the proposal of recruiting women in combat operations (The Secretary, Ministry of Defence v Babita Puniya and Others 2020: para 54). The military is following an either/or approach: if steps are taken to induct women in non-traditional roles in which they were not appointed previously, then men in similar roles would be greatly disadvantaged. However, the point is that if the army can equip males to face hazards efficiently, why can it not equip women with the special skills needed to perform effectively in combat roles?

The Supreme Court, in the Babita Puniya judgment, has illustrated as many as 11 instances documenting how women officers of the Indian Army have brought laurels to the force and the nation. They have served in the United Nations Peacekeeping operations in conflict-ridden Congo and Burundi, fought terrorists in Afghanistan, transported and handled convoys in militant-prone areas in Leh, Srinagar, Udhampur and in the North East, and participated in active combat scenarios in Syria, Lebanon, Ethiopia, and Israel.

At this juncture, we must not forget that it took SSC women officers almost two decades of sheer perseverance and patience to achieve this landmark victory inside the courtroom in their fight against a male-dominated Indian Army. It would be grossly incorrect to think that the fight against male domination within the military is over with a legal pronouncement from the ivory towers of justice. The years of continuous struggle by women officers for equality of opportunity will continue outside the courts and within a male-dominated military. After all, the real gap that exists between de jure equality and de facto equality, in this case, is in the mentality of the male brass, in both the institution and its processes, which is where the change needs to happen.

Militaries around the World

It is important to study how other countries in the world have addressed the womens question pertaining to the military, particularly women in combat roles. For example, the United Kingdom (UK), the United States (US) and Australia have opened all combat roles to women without lowering entry standards or exposing them to higher and unmanageable risks by rethinking as well as rewriting the physical employment standards (PES) for military personnel and adopting effective mitigation strategies (Kamarck 2016). The Women in Ground Close Combat Findings Paper noted that the UK Armys physical selection standards were outdated because these standards were based on science and the military context of the 1990s, and that the armed forces equipment, doctrine, and the average weight carried had completely changed since then (Ministry of Defence 2016a). The report acknowledged that a systematic and thorough rehaul of the entire military institution and its processes was required in order to achieve a diverse as well as a multitalented workforce and an optimal jobperson fit and also to ensure that the standards are maintained.

As such, the Interim Report on the Health Risks to Women in Ground Close Combat Roles prepared by the UKs Ministry of Defence (2016b) recommended that:

(1) New optimised Physical Employment Standards for GCC [ground close combat] roles are developed and implemented.

(2) Optimal, progressive physical training strategies, with special consideration for upper body strength and load carriage performance, are delivered through-career for women (and men) in GCC roles.

(3) Interventions to reduce overtraining (e g, excessive distance running) are introduced.

(4) Initial training is undertaken in a single sex manner.

(5) Women in GCC roles are monitored through-career for early signs of injury and/or ill-health by an occupational physician.

(6) Education on injury risk, ill-health, and preventative strategies is provided to all leaders and personnel.

(7) Provision of, and access to, Mental Health First Aid is made available and strongly encouraged at Unit level.

(8) Education on appropriate training, postpartum requirements, and dietary needs for women in GCC roles is provided in an updated Servicewomens Guide.

(9) Research is continued to identify the causes of injuries, mental ill-health, and impaired reproductive health so that that bespoke mitigations can be developed for the UK Armed Forces population.

With these insights, it can be reasonably concluded that a people-centric approach must be adopted by the Indian state and military rather than blindly applying a male-centric approach to address the womens question in the armed forces. In May 2019, Flight Lieutenant Bhawana Kanth became the first woman fighter pilotin the Indian Airforce and in December 2019, SubLieutenant Shivangi became the first woman pilot in the Indian Navy (Joshi 2019; Gurung 2019).

Despite these major achievements, being treated as the other and lesser within the military fold on the basis of a subjective evaluation by male officers and outdated male standards, being deprived of the bundle of benefits and privileges like promotions, ranks, pensions, and other facilities vis--vis their male counterparts is dishonourable, discriminatory, and demotivating for servicewomen. Their fight for equality within the military fold has just begun.

References

Davies, Margaret (2017): Asking the Law Question, Pyrmont: Thomson-Reuters.

De Beauvoir, Simone (1972): The Second Sex, London: Penguin, https://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/de-beauvoir/2nd-sex/ch....

Gurung, Shaurya Karanbir (2019): Bhawana Kanth Becomes 1st Fighter Pilot to Qualify to Undertake Combat Missions, Economic Times, 22 May, https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/bhawana-kanth-becomes-....

Joshi, Shamani (2019): The Indian Navy Just Got Its First Female Pilot, VICE, 3 December, https://www.vice.com/en_in/article/ne8akk/the-indian-navy-just-got-its-f....

Kamarck, Kristy N (2016): Women in Combat: Issues for Congress, Congressional Research Service, United States, 13 December, https://fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/R42075.pdf.

Ministry of Defence (2016a): Women in Ground Close Combat Findings Paper, United Kingdom, 17 May, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploa....

(2016b): Interim Report on the Health Risks to Women in Ground Close Combat Roles, WGCC/Interim-Report/10/2016, United Kingdom, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploa....

The Secretary, Ministry of Defence v Babita Puniya and Others (2020): Civil Appeal Nos 93679369 of 2011, Supreme Court judgment dated 17 February, https://main.sci.gov.in/supremecourt/2010/20695/20695_2010_8_1501_20635_....

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Remaking the Indian Military for Women : Beyond the Babita Puniya Judgment - Economic and Political Weekly

Cell Biology

As the First Smallpox Vaccine Turns 224, A Look at How It Started – The Great Courses Daily News

By Jonny Lupsha, News Writer

The website The History of Vaccines said that the first smallpox inoculation came about as a test of a hypothesis that a cowpox infection could protect someone from getting the smallpox disease. On May 14, 1796, [Edward] Jenner inoculated eight-year-old James Phipps with matter from a cowpox sore on the hand of milkmaid Sarah Nelmes, the website said. Phipps suffered a local reaction and felt poorly for several days but made a full recovery. In July 1796, Jenner inoculated Phipps with matter taken from a fresh human smallpox sore, as if he were variolating the boy, in an attempt to challenge the protection from cowpox. Phipps remained healthy.

The 18th-century history of inoculating against smallpox also includes a young George Washington.

In 1776, the colonies that would become the United States of America faced an enemy that George Washington considered to be more dangerous than the British army.

Smallpox had ravaged General Horatio Gatess American Northern Army, said Dr. David Sadava, Adjunct Professor of Cancer Cell Biology at the City of Hope Medical Center. Of 10,000 troops, over half of them got smallpox, and the military campaign had to be suspended for a month.

Dr. Sadava said that Washington spoke of smallpox from experience. In his teenage years, Washington took his half-brother Lawrence to Barbados to help with Lawrences tuberculosis. Although the trip failed to help Lawrence, George contracted smallpox and learned of its dangers. By the time of the Revolutionary War, he had come to appreciate how serious smallpox could be. He chose to order his troops to be inoculated against the illness the following year.

The 1777, inoculation ordered by Washington was the first-known inoculation of an army, and it worked pretty well, Dr. Sadava said. Casualties to smallpox were greatly reduced and history tells us that the colonists, of course, won the Revolutionary War.

George Washington contracted smallpox when he was a teenager, but he obviously lived for a long time afterward due to his bodys vigilant immune system.

Washingtons immune system, the system that fights disease, fought off the infection in several steps, Dr. Sadava said. After the smallpox virus entered Washingtons body, some white blood cells called phagocytes engulfed the virus. They digested it to small pieces, chopped it up, and they presented some of these protein fragments of the virus on their cell surface.

After this, Dr. Sadava said, other white blood cells flagged the smallpox virus and set a series of events in motion that saved Washingtons life. These events included sending cells called killer T-cells into the fight which targeted any cell in Washingtons body that carried smallpox.

Still other white blood cells, called B-cells, made antibodiesthese are blood proteins that would bind up any viruses that were outside Washingtons cells, that hadnt infected a cell but were in the bloodstream, for example, Dr. Sadava said. So these B-cells made a whole army that would make antibodies that would bind them up. This two-pronged attackcells to kill infected tissue and antibodies to bind up free virusesswiftly reduced the infection to a mild one in Washingtons case.

Dr. Sadava said that once smallpox was eradicated from Washingtons body, the remaining cells that stood guard to watch for smallpox were called memory cells, and they were the same types of cells that were key to inoculating the army. He said that when dead smallpox viruses from the pus of smallpox victims was put into the cut skin of Continental Army soldiers, the viruses looked enough like their live counterparts to spur the immune system into producing the T- and B-cells required to fight the virus.

Today, smallpox has mostly been eradicated through vaccination. It wouldnt have been possible without Edward Jenners cowpox experiment and George Washingtons caution over the disease.

Dr. David Sadava contributed to this article. Dr. Sadava is Adjunct Professor of Cancer Cell Biology at the City of Hope Medical Center and the Pritzker Family Foundation Professor of Biology, Emeritus, at The Claremont Colleges. He earned a B.S. with first-class honors in biology and chemistry from Carleton University and a Ph.D. in Biology from the University of California, San Diego.

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Cell Biology

Study finds different types of human white fat cells – Medical News Today

Discovering that white fat cells are not all the same may help researchers better understand the role of fat cells in disease.

The risks associated with white adipose tissue, or white body fat, depend to some extent on where that fat is.

For example, intra-abdominal fat (belly fat) is more likely to lead to diabetes and other metabolic conditions than white fat deposits located just beneath the skin (such as in the hips and thighs).

Now, however according to a new paper from the Joslin Diabetes Center in Boston and Boston University, both in Massachusetts it appears that there is more to it than that: There are at least two distinct classes of subcutaneous white fat cells.

A central question in our research on metabolic disease is whether white fat cells in different parts of the body, and even within a single part of the body, are different enough that some might predispose you to disease and some might not, says co-senior author C. Ronald Kahn, a physician and scientist.

Immature white fat cells do not follow a single, universal trajectory to maturity. They can develop different patterns of gene expression.

Kahn is hopeful that determining the mechanisms for these differences could lead to development of novel therapies for diabetes, obesity, and related conditions.

The paper now appears in the journal Nature Communications.

Although previous research had identified multiple types of white fat cells in mice, this is one of the first to have done so in humans.

The paper is the product of an unusual collaboration, says Kahn. According to senior co-author Simon Kasif, a biomedical engineer, The study highlights the potential of bringing interdisciplinary expertise from four laboratories to integrate biology, artificial intelligence, systems biology, and data obtained from clinical samples to catalyze discovery.

Although the study identified two different types of white fat cells, that may just be the beginning. We think this research is the tip of the iceberg if we study more samples of human fat, we will find more subtypes, says Kahn.

Single-cell RNA sequencing allows scientists to track the genetic development of single fat cells from their precursor, or preadipocyte, stage to their mature patterns of gene expression.

For this project, the researchers used white subcutaneous fat cells from a biobank of specimens that scientists had previously collected from healthy individuals.

Scientists at the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard in Cambridge, MA, and the Joslin laboratory of Yu-Hua Tseng then performed single-cell RNA sequencing on these samples.

Researchers performed an integrated analysis of both datasets using a novel mathematical technique that helped reveal the cells patterns of gene expression. It revealed that the datasets depicted two distinct white fat cell subtypes.

To begin with, as preadipocytes, one subtype expressed much higher levels of zinc nuclear finger genes. This is a set of master regulator genes, the function of which researchers do not yet understand. However, they may help control cells maturation, say the papers authors.

In addition, at maturity, the two cell subtypes exhibited very different patterns of gene expression.

The patterns in one subtype, for example, indicated a significantly higher intake of glucose, which is an important metabolic resource.

Body fat is linked to many different conditions beyond diabetes. This research could be important for understanding the risk factors for other metabolic diseases, such as fatty liver disease and atherosclerosis, and even non-metabolic diseases that are increased by obesity, such as cancer and Alzheimers disease.

C. Ronald Kahn

That white fat cells can be different from each other also fits with another growing area of research.

According to Kasif: Metabolic diseases are highly associated with environmental factors. This work supports the relatively understudied hypothesis that environmental factors may modify the trajectory of how cells develop and our understanding of how this process may influence biology and metabolic disease.

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Study finds different types of human white fat cells - Medical News Today

Biochemistry

What is the ACE2 receptor, how is it connected to coronavirus and why might it be key to treating COVID-19? The experts explain – TheStreet

Courtesy of Krishna Sriram, University of California San Diego; Paul Insel, University of California San Diego, and Rohit Loomba, University of California San Diego

In the search for treatments for COVID-19, many researchers are focusing their attention on a specific protein that allows the virus to infect human cells. Called the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, or ACE2 receptor, the protein provides the entry point for the coronavirus to hook into and infect a wide range of human cells. Might this be central in how to treat this disease?

We are scientists with expertise in pharmacology, molecular biology and biochemistry, with a strong commitment to applying these skills to the discovery of novel therapies for human disease. In particular, all three authors have experience studying angiotensin signaling in various disease settings, a biochemical pathway that appears to be central in COVID-19. Here are some of the key issues to understand about why theres so much focus on this protein.

ACE2 is a protein on the surface of many cell types. It is an enzyme that generates small proteins by cutting up the larger protein angiotensinogen that then go on to regulate functions in the cell.

Using the spike-like protein on its surface, the SARS-CoV-2 virus binds to ACE2 like a key being inserted into a lock prior to entry and infection of cells. Hence, ACE2 acts as a cellular doorway a receptor for the virus that causes COVID-19.

ACE2 is present in many cell types and tissues including the lungs, heart, blood vessels, kidneys, liver and gastrointestinal tract. It is present in epithelial cells, which line certain tissues and create protective barriers.

The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and blood vessels occurs across this epithelial lining in the lung. ACE2 is present in epithelium in the nose, mouth and lungs. In the lungs, ACE2 is highly abundant on type 2 pneumocytes, an important cell type present in chambers within the lung called alveoli, where oxygen is absorbed and waste carbon dioxide is released.

ACE2 is a vital element in a biochemical pathway that is critical to regulating processes such as blood pressure, wound healing and inflammation, called the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) pathway.

ACE2 helps modulate the many activities of a protein called angiotensin II (ANG II) that increases blood pressure and inflammation, increasing damage to blood vessel linings and various types of tissue injury. ACE2 converts ANG II to other molecules that counteract the effects of ANG II.

Of greatest relevance to COVID-19, ANG II can increase inflammation and the death of cells in the alveoli which are critical for bringing oxygen into the body; these harmful effects of ANG II are reduced by ACE2.

When the SARS-CoV-2 virus binds to ACE2, it prevents ACE2 from performing its normal function to regulate ANG II signaling. Thus, ACE2 action is inhibited, removing the brakes from ANG II signaling and making more ANG II available to injure tissues. This decreased braking likely contributes to injury, especially to the lungs and heart, in COVID-19 patients.

No. ACE2 is present in all people but the quantity can vary among individuals and in different tissues and cells. Some evidence suggests that ACE2 may be higher in patients with hypertension, diabetes and coronary heart disease. Studies have found that a lack of ACE2 (in mice) is associated with severe tissue injury in the heart, lungs and other tissue types.

This is unclear. The SARS-CoV-2 virus requires ACE2 to infect cells but the precise relationship between ACE2 levels, viral infectivity and severity of infection are not well understood.

Even so, aside from its ability to bind the SARS-CoV-2 virus, ACE2 has protective effects against tissue injury, by mitigating the pathological effects of ANG II.

When the amount of ACE2 is reduced because the virus is occupying the receptor, individuals may be more susceptible to severe illness from COVID-19. That is because enough ACE2 is available to facilitate viral entry but the decrease in available ACE2 contributes to more ANG II-mediated injury. In particular, reducing ACE2 will increase susceptibility to inflammation, cell death and organ failure, especially in the heart and the lung.

The lungs are the primary site of injury by SARS-CoV-2 infection, which causes COVID-19. The virus reaches the lungs after entry in the nose or mouth.

ANG II drives lung injury. If there is a decrease in ACE2 activity (because the virus is binding to it), then ACE2 cant break down the ANG II protein, which means there is more of it to cause inflammation and damage in the body.

The virus also impacts other tissues that express ACE2, including the heart, where damage and inflammation (myocarditis) can occur. The kidneys, liver and digestive tract can also be injured. Blood vessels may also be a site for damage.

In a recent research paper, we argued that a key factor that determines severity of damage in patients with COVID-19 is abnormally high ANG II activity.

Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE, aka ACE1) is another protein, also found in tissues such as the lung and heart, where ACE2 is present. Drugs that inhibit the actions of ACE1 are called ACE inhibitors. Examples of these drugs are ramipril, lisinopril, and enalapril. These drugs block the actions of ACE1 but not ACE2. ACE1 drives the production of ANG II. In effect, ACE1 and ACE2 have a yin-yang relationship; ACE1 increases the amount of ANG II, whereas ACE2 reduces ANG II.

By inhibiting ACE1, ACE inhibitors reduce the levels of ANG II and its ability to increase blood pressure and tissue injury. ACE inhibitors are commonly prescribed for patients with hypertension, heart failure and kidney disease.

Another commonly prescribed class of drugs, angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs, e.g., losartan, valsartan, etc.) have similar effects to ACE inhibitors and may also be useful in treating COVID-19.

Evidence for a protective effect of ACE inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers in patients with COVID-19 was shown in recent work co-authored by one of us Dr. Loomba.

No evidence exists to suggest prophylactic use of these drugs; we do not advise readers to take these drugs in the hopes that they will prevent COVID-19. We wish to emphasize that patients should only take these drugs as instructed by their health care provider.

In collaboration with a multidisciplinary group of investigators, Dr. Loomba has initiated a multicenter (randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled) clinical trial to examine the efficacy of ramipril an ACE inhibitor compared to a placebo in reducing mortality, ICU admission or need for mechanical ventilation in patients with COVID-19.

[Get facts about coronavirus and the latest research. Sign up for The Conversations newsletter.]

Krishna Sriram, Postdoctoral Fellow, University of California San Diego; Paul Insel, Professor of Pharmacology and Medicine, University of California San Diego, and Rohit Loomba, Professor of Medicine, University of California San Diego

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

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What is the ACE2 receptor, how is it connected to coronavirus and why might it be key to treating COVID-19? The experts explain - TheStreet