Physiology

Op-Ed: This is how global warming can kill you right now – Digital Journal

Human beings have built-in air conditioning. Your body can regulate its temperature, but only to a point. When temperatures rise above 35C, roughly body temperature, you sweat to cool down. However That 35C is also a benchmark. If your body cant keep your temperature below 35C, its in trouble. This means it cant cool down and overheats. Humidity is one of the deadly factors which can tip people over the limit. Most people loathe humid weather, with good reason. It does make it extremely difficult to cool down, and working in that sort of weather is murderously unpleasant. Any kind of exertion triggers heating. Theres a very interesting explanation of how this works on Inverse.com, which explains the process in depth. The good news so far is that even in massive heatwaves, getting into that condition isnt easy to do. Most people can survive simply by sweating and reducing body temperature. The bad news is that cases of hitting this brick wall are becoming more common, and are raising obvious health risks. Heatwaves and historyThe big heatwaves of the last decades or so tell a very grim story. If you check out this list of heatwaves, youll see a range of patterns. One of those patterns is emerging large-scale heatwaves covering very large areas. This is the simplest way to define the heat risk factor for humans. Theres another factor which isnt as well-known, and its called residual heat. Air and physical objects dont automatically lose heat or lose it rapidly in a hot ambient environment. The hot temperatures dont just go away. Heat transfer is slower than usual. Temperatures remain high overnight, adding further physiological stress. Then the hot night becomes a hotter day. This puts a lot of strain on heat regulation by the body. Losing sleep on ridiculously hot nights doesnt help a lot, either, adding more physiological stress, and worse, reducing the effectiveness of sleep as a recovery method. Sustained heat stress, therefore, is now statistically likely to become more common, more widespread, and last longer. The human body simply isnt designed for this type of climate. New risks for new generationsThere are clear large-scale risks for the very young, in particular. Its quite impossible to predict how abnormally high temperatures will impact the next generations, but there are clear risk factors. Babies may well be on the wrong end of this situation. Immature physiology can be tricky enough without added risks, and how it reacts to extreme heat isnt at all clear. The possibility of serious health damage to infants cant be ignored. This is the age when things need to go right, and this new heat is a big possible risk. According to the WHO, 166,000 people died worldwide from heatwaves in the years 1998-2017. To scale, with increasing populations, that number could go up drastically, and soon. The future is looking way too sunny. theres another issue More heat means people need more water. Thanks to massive global maladministration of water supplies for decades, water must now be considered an existing high risk factor for future generations. This is just one example of the huge threats to future humanity posed by heat. Good luck, kids. Youre going to need it. You might try some sanity, too. At the very least, itd be a nice change.

This opinion article was written by an independent writer. The opinions and views expressed herein are those of the author and are not necessarily intended to reflect those of DigitalJournal.com

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Op-Ed: This is how global warming can kill you right now - Digital Journal

Physiology

Can We Flatten the Second Wave Without Universal Masking? – MedPage Today

With the U.S. recently passing the milestone of 100,000 deaths from COVID-19, MedPage Today Editor-in-Chief Martin Makary, MD, of Johns Hopkins University, discusses reasons behind a potential spike in cases in our nation's Sun Belt states, what China has taught us about the value of masks, and what vaccines and treatments in the pipeline are most exciting to him.

Click here to watch part one of this discussion on what we've learned and how it can help us prepare.

The following is a transcript of their remarks:

Greg Laub: You've mentioned that second wave. If there is a second wave, with such a small fraction of the population being infected at this point, do you think a second wave would infect basically the same amount of people in the fall, in the winter?

Marty Makary: It turns out the other four major coronaviruses that have been around for years are seasonal. This may, in fact, be the fifth seasonal coronavirus. Now, we've had very promising news with the therapeutics and vaccines, but it is likely -- and most experts would say that it is likely -- that this is going to come back in the fall.

We've already seen selective pockets where there are outbreaks during warm weather. Remember, while this coronavirus appears to be seasonal, we don't know to what extent. Early on, the Sun Belt states did not get hit nearly as hard as was projected. Now, almost in a mini second wave within the first wave, we are starting to see cases not just increase, but hospitalizations increase, which I think is the best metric of how epidemic an infection is in that particular community.

It does lag behind -- about 8 to 14 days behind the infections -- but hospitalizations are still going up right now in Alabama. In Montgomery, Alabama, in particular, where the mayor there said last weekend that the ICUs are full, that there are no more available ICUs as of last weekend. Mississippi is seeing an increase in hospitalizations. Parts of Wisconsin, Minnesota, the District of Columbia, and Georgia.

Why are we seeing increases with warm weather right now? That is concerning. Because as we reopen the country, cases and hospitalizations will go up. We've known that. But we were hoping to have a lower baseline rate of infection as we reopen the country. We did not see a rapid decline. Most of the models used, what we call, a symmetric epidemic curve, which is a steep increase and a rapid decline. We didn't have that. That was not our experience.

The models were based on the experience in Wuhan, China, but they had very harsh and draconian shutdown conditions. Maybe that's why they had the rapid decline. Our experience has been more like the European experience, where we've seen a slower decline, and in some parts of the country -- where there may be, say, a disregard for the risk of the infection -- a long plateau and a very slow decline.

Even potentially, in some areas now, we're seeing a second mini-wave within the first wave, so I am concerned about that. I am worried about the fall. I think we can look at the other seasonal coronaviruses and say, "This is a threat."

At the same time, look at Brazil. Brazil is very concerning right now, over 1,000 deaths a day and increasing for a country a little larger than half our size. The most concerning feature is that it's warm in Brazil. It's in the 60s and 70s. Part of Brazil is at the equator. For them to have such a bad epidemic in Brazil with warm climate is a concern for what we could have when the cold season comes back and magnifies the problem.

Laub: With 100,000 deaths, the COVID-19 cloud is very dark. But if there is a silver lining, or multiple silver linings, what would they be?

Makary: I think there are a couple good silver linings that have come out of this horrible tragedy. One, for example, is that we will probably save thousands of people from influenza year to year because of the best practices that the public has now finally accepted, adopted, and believes in. That's important.

We've been oddly complacent about influenza deaths year to year: 81,000 deaths 33.5 years ago, just from seasonal influenza, so that is, I think, one positive. Maybe we thought we were too cool for masks in the past and we're now recognizing the value.

For me, this has been an evolution and a change in my own thinking. I'm kind of amused at the discussion around masks because I have been wearing a mask most of my adult life as a surgeon, but it turns out there's tremendous value in places where people can't maintain social distance.

I talked to a surgeon in China who has been sort of reassigned to Wuhan during the ICUs being overwhelmed there. I asked him, after the fact, once the epidemic had really calmed down, I said, "Wuhan is a city of 11 million people. You had a terrible outbreak there. How were you able to essentially manage the broader population of China, over 1.1 billion, without the same thing that happened in Wuhan happening around the rest of the country?" The virus is certainly not 100% extinguished. How were they able to manage the coronavirus in China, in a country of 1.1 billion, after the outbreaks in Wuhan and Harbin? You know what he said? He said, "It's because of masks. Everybody wears a mask." I thought, "You know, that is powerful."

The data has come out and the CDC guidance has come out, even last week, that the risk of droplet airborne transmission from person-to-person contact, breathing, from speaking, even, from that airborne droplet transmission, is far greater than from the transmission of the virus through surfaces. We're increasingly learning the value of wearing masks in a situation like that and I think it's powerful.

Laub: Now, everyone discusses the economic cost of a shutdown and how many people are suffering, but there's varying data on the cost medically of a shutdown. What are the true medical costs of a shutdown?

Makary: The public health data traditionally lags behind some of the more immediate claims. It turns out in this situation maybe the data on the public health consequences of the shutdown might actually be worse than some of the initial predictions.

It turns out that some New York hospitals have already reported a 30% to 50% drop in new cancer patients. Not existing cancer patients, but new cancer patients. Most hospitals are describing a reduction in cancer screenings to the point of a near-elimination of screenings.

In one study by Epic, the electronic health records company, through their Epic health research network, they identified an overall reduction in cancer screenings between 86% and 94%. That's cervical cancer, colon cancer, and breast cancer screenings, so there are going to be downstream effects of that.

Laub: Finally, the thing everyone has been talking about and looking forward to is vaccines, treatments. What are some of the most exciting treatments going on now? What do you see in the future?

Makary: If you would have told me three months ago we'd be this far along where we actually have multiple vaccines that have demonstrated that they can produce a neutralizing antibody by May, I would have told you, "I really don't think so. That sounds overly ambitious." But it turns out we're here. That's exactly what we have.

Many pharma companies have sort of deserted the vaccine business because of the liability and the low margins. There's been a big effort now to consolidate resources, and so you've got a lot of great news coming out right now.

There is a virus that J&J just announced with an adenovirus carrier. It's the viral carriers of the portion of the genetic code that can generate an immune response. They appear to generate a more robust immune response than simply using a protein coat, which some companies like Novavax are doing, an Australian company.

AstraZeneca and the Oxford mRNA vaccine has already demonstrated effectiveness in rhesus monkeys, which is basically the closest physiological lab compared to a human being. It's as close as we get in terms of a human's physiology.

That's impressive, generating neutralizing antibody in rhesus monkeys to the point where the monkeys have actually been exposed to the virus and don't get sick. Whereas the monkeys exposed to the virus and were not vaccinated with that mRNA virus or vaccine did not get sick. I mean, that's pretty impressive, once again, showing that we're beyond the feasibility of this. Now, it's really going to be a matter of figuring out the right dosage.

We've got multiple companies. Merck has been a little quiet with what they're doing. Sanofi is using the traditional approach. Pfizer has a lot of experience making vaccines, so we're seeing a lot of companies put their heads together.

The vaccine helps, even if it's 5% or 10% of people. Even if it's those who are high-risk. Even if it's selectively given to cashiers, TSA agents, healthcare workers, and those who are known vectors of transmission. All of that helps.

All of it's good news, along with remdesivir, and some of the new stuff now like some of the medications like Actemra, which are designed to work with remdesivir to reduce the cytokine storm. It's basically an immune modulator, so it's a new approach to this infection.

A lot of exciting things and I think it's impressive. When we let the scientific community do its work, it's pretty impressive what it can produce.

Laub: I want to thank you, Dr. Makary. It's been a pleasure having you here at your home, MedPage Today. Thanks for joining us.

Makary: Good to be with you.

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Can We Flatten the Second Wave Without Universal Masking? - MedPage Today

Physiology

NIC now offering biology education digitally – My Campbell River Now

NIC 160 bio students meet for a virtual question and answer session with instructor Emaline Montgomery (bottom right). (Supplied by North Island College)

North Island College is transitioning to online biology labs.

Its biology faculty is among the first in the province to move its lab courses to digital delivery.

Students taking BIO-160 Human Anatomy & Physiology I say they are enjoying the flexibility, accessibility and quality of online learning at NIC.

It was challenging at first to get used to, but theyve given us so much material and resources, its worked really well, said Jade Denbigh, who took the course to get ahead on her Bachelor of Science in Nursing program.

Im actually finding that the flexibility of online learning, especially as Im working full time, has been a big benefit.

Classmate Megan Truby is taking classes in preparation for studying radiology and says the online platform made labs less intimidating.

It can be stressful to be in a lab setting in real life, whereas the online labs are very accessible and less intimidating, said Truby.

Its a good introduction to university-level sciences without being overwhelming.

Truby notes taking online courses this summer is also providing her with other skills that will come in useful as she transitions to medical school.

Soft skills like time management and organization are so important learning online is helping to really strengthen those skills, which I know will help a lot when I have a full course load this fall at NIC and in all my future studies.

Faculty worked with NICs Centre for Teaching and Learning to develop online lab components for the course, which has topics such as biochemistry, cell biology, genetics, and includes an extensive laboratory component that students would be able to complete from home.

This course was actually the perfect test case for doing labs online, because its about the human body, said Sandra Milligan, course developer and biology instructor.

Most of the work we do in lab involves the students observing their own body measuring heart rate, movement of joints, so we realized very quickly that most of it could be done from home.

Milligan discovered NIC was ahead of the curve in the transition to digital learning when she attended a virtual meeting with her fellow science faculty from across the province.

I was shocked that so many institutions had cancelled their spring offerings NIC was one of the few in the province to be running biology labs this spring and summer, she said. Weve shared our curriculum, which is being used as a template for others.

Milligan notes NICs history as a distance education institution, and its size, positioned it well to make the change quickly.

The commitment from faculty and the leadership and support from our amazing Centre for Teaching and Learning team was key in our being able to pivot so fast, she said. The transition wasnt perfect, but, looking back, its incredible what weve been able to accomplish and roll out in a matter of weeks.

The transition has been welcomed by fellow instructor Dr. Emaline Montgomery, who has watched her students adapt to the online labs.

Learning about themselves as learners has been a key part of this, she said. They are learning their own capabilities to push through boundaries and increasing their confidence with the online space and technology. Theres great online engagement with each other and with me as the instructor.

Both instructors say theyve noted other benefits to digital learning, as well, including being able to keep an eye on how students are progressing through the materials to more quickly identify those who may need help and the change in evaluation fewer invigilated tests and more reflection-based exercises have helped student who struggle with test anxiety.

The lessons learned through the online spring and summer delivery will also help inform how NICs fall classes are adapted to the digital environment.

I am optimistic and in full support of online learning especially hybrid and blended options where there are opportunities for the students and instructors to interact but also lots of opportunities for student-driven learning, said Montgomery.

For more details on all NICs science programs and courses, visit http://www.nic.bc.ca/university-studies.

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NIC now offering biology education digitally - My Campbell River Now

Physiology

Office of Faculty Affairs announces faculty promotion and tenure – The South End

The Wayne State University School of Medicines Office of Faculty Affairs and Professional Development announced promotions and tenure status for more than 75 faculty members.

This year we had a record number of School of Medicine faculty members who received the well-deserved recognition of being promoted to a higher academic rank. Among these were faculty members who distinguished themselves as scientists, educators, renowned clinicians, dedicated citizens and community leaders, said Vice Dean of Faculty Affairs Basim Dubaybo, M.D. It is gratifying but not surprising that even during a debilitating pandemic, our university continues to fulfill its academic and service missions without hesitation. This reflects our commitment to our students and our community, where a large number of physicians who participate in our academic mission have received the recognition and promotion they have earned.

Five faculty were granted tenure, including Associate Professor of Oncology Asfar Azmi, Ph.D.; Associate Professor of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences Elizabeth Berger, Ph.D.; Associate Professor of Physiology Robert Wessells, Ph.D.; Associate Professor of Obstetrics and Gynecology Nerissa Viola, Ph.D.; and Associate Professor of Obstetrics and Gynecology Nardhy Gomez-Lopez, Ph.D.

I am honored to receive the promotion of tenure at the Wayne State University School of Medicine. I am grateful to be part of the Perinatology Research Branch, whose translational research is dedicated to improving the lives of mothers and children, Dr. Gomez-Lopez said. This accomplishment was largely due to the successful collaborations that I have established in the intellectually-stimulating environment within the Perinatology Research Branch. I am particularly grateful to (PRB Chief and Professor of Obstetrics and Gynecology) Dr. Roberto Romero and (Professor and Chair of Obstetrics and Gynecology) Dr. Chaur-Dong Hsu for their continuous support of women in science.

A complete list of promoted faculty is now available at https://facaffairs.med.wayne.edu/ptawards

A formal celebration will be held at a later date.

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Office of Faculty Affairs announces faculty promotion and tenure - The South End

Physiology

ABI researchers to develop a more personalised approach to ventilator monitoring – New Zealand Doctor Online

Ventilators save lives, but treating patients with mechanical ventilators is not without risk.

Dr Haribalan Kumar, Auckland Bioengineering Institute (ABI), University of Auckland, plans to reduce that risk with a technology that will allow for more precise and dynamic monitoring of lung function at the bedside of a patient being treated with a ventilator. He and his team have received $150,000 from the Health Research Councils Explorer Fund to do so.

A ventilator takes over the bodys breathing process when the lung begins to fail as it does when a patient has lung disease such as pneumonia, which has affected many Covid-19 patients. This gives patients time to recover from their condition.

However, mechanical ventilation involves using high pressures to pump oxygen into the tiny air sacs of the lung, which can save peoples lives but also cause lung injury, particularly if a patient requires long term treatment.

The monitoring of lung function (and adjusting the ventilators in response) is crucial to avoiding ventilator-related injury, particularly in critical care patients.

Such patients need bedside monitoring, but this is currently limited to measurements taken externally: pressure, volume and blood gases. This makes it very difficult for clinicians to track how a patient is responding with any precision, says Dr Kumar.

It means they can only respond to significant changes in a patient; without more precise monitoring, the greater the risk to the adverse effects of mechanical ventilation, which can affect the patient for life.

Building upon New Zealands reputation in modelling lung physiology and working with international collaborators, he and his team (including Professor Merryn Tawhai and Dr Alys Clark) hope to resolve this issue by combining patient-specific models of the lung with low-cost dynamic imaging.

Electrical Impedance Tomography (or EIT) is a technology that allows for imaging of the lungs inside the chest wall, by measuring signals from a belt of electrodes placed around the chest. EIT offers an imaging solution for continuous monitoring but EIT has not been taken up widely because it has much lower resolution than other established imaging methods and it can be difficult to interpret, says Dr Kumar.

He points out that differences in individual physiology (age, size, height, underlying health conditions etc.) mean that one lung is not like another, and this complicates the translation of measurements into a meaningful image.

Dr Kumars approach, if successful, will personalise the imaging information and improve its clinical value. We hope our research will transform EIT from a potentially useful but difficult to interpret technology, to one that is personalised and easy for clinicians to use and interpret, says Dr Kumar.

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Physiology

How to Become a Physical Therapist Benzinga – Benzinga

Benzinga Money is a reader-supported publication. We may earn a commission when you click on links in this article. Learn more.

Have you dreamed of working as a physical therapist someday? Its a viable career choice that allows you to help patients improve body movements and minimize pain. Plus, you can help prevent injuries and disabilities that impede the optimal functionality of the human body.

Maybe youre ready to launch your career but dont know where to start. Benzinga will show you the ropes in this detailed guide on how to become a physical therapist.

Before you take the first step toward becoming a physical therapist, you should know what the role entails and how much you can expect to be compensated. Its also best if you have an idea of the education requirements. Most importantly, you want to know if the demand for physical therapists will increase over time.

Weve included this information and more to help you determine if a career as a physical therapist is right for you.

Physical therapists play an integral role in the preventive care, rehabilitation and treatment process for their patients. Their primary goal is to help patients improve movement in the area thats injured or impacted by a chronic condition or illness.

Other core roles and responsibilities include:

According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, these industries employ the largest number of physical therapists:

In May 2019, the average annual salary for physical therapists was $89,440, notes BLS.gov. Heres how it breaks down by industry:

You need a Doctor of Physical Therapy (DPT) degree to work in the field. Before you can be admitted to a program, you will need a bachelors degree under your belt. Youre not limited to majors but its best to consider options that include courses on anatomy, biology, chemistry, physics and physiology. An undergraduate degree in exercise science is also ideal.

According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, the demand for physical therapists is slated to increase by 22% through 2028. This is good news for aspiring physical therapists, as the projected growth rate is 17% higher than the average for all other occupations.

Follow these steps to become a physical therapist.

You want a bachelors degree program thats offered by a reputable college or university. It should also be accredited and feature small class sizes that allow you to receive individualized attention. Dedicated student support resources for distance learning students are also ideal.

Consider an online course to learn more about the physical therapy profession or supplement your knowledge. Affordable options are available for all skill levels, and you can work through the course material at your own pace.

The program you select should be accredited by the Commission on Accreditation in Physical Therapy Education (CAPTE). Expect to spend 3 years working through the program.

When you graduate from the DPT program, you can participate in a clinical residency program. Doing so allows you to gain additional experience in the field and focus on a particular area of care. If you want to gain even more specialized expertise, consider a fellowship program. View your options through the American Board of Physical Therapy Residency and Fellowship Educations website.

Before you can practice as a physical therapist, you must pass the National Physical Therapy Examination to get licensed. It is facilitated by the Federation of State Boards of Physical Therapy.

These online exercise science degree programs will help you meet the education requirements needed to be admitted to a DPT program.

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Physiology

Does the Dementia Gene Double COVID-19 Risk? A Closer Look at the Link Between the Virus and ApoE4 – Being Patient

A new study suggests that people with two copies of ApoE4, one of the largest genetic risk factors for Alzheimers, have more than double the risk of getting a severe COVID-19 infection. But other researchers heed caution against drawing conclusions too soon.

In the study, a team of researchers at the University of Exeter Medical School and the University of Connecticut drew data from the UK Biobank which has data on 500,000 volunteers aged 48 and 86. They looked for positive COVID-19 tests between March and April, and then compared the presence of ApoE4 alleles with the severity of COVID-19.

Everyone has two copies of the ApoE gene, but there are several variations, including ApoE2, ApoE3 and ApoE4. The combination you have determines your ApoE genotype E2/E2, E2/E3, E2/E4, E3/E3, E3/E4, or E4/E4.

ApoE3 is the most common and doesnt seem to influence risk for Alzheimers, while the E4 allele, which is present in 10 to 15 percent of people, increases the risk for Alzheimers and lowers the age of onset. Having one copy of E4 can double or triple your risk, and having two copies E4/E4 can increase Alzheimers risk by a factor of 12.

The team found that those with two copies of ApoE4 had over double the risk of severe COVID-19 than those with ApoE3.

This is an exciting result because we might now be able to pinpoint how this faulty gene causes vulnerability to COVID-19. This could lead to new ideas for treatments, said Chia-Ling Kuo in a press release, an author of the study and senior biostatistician at University of Connecticut.

Its impressive that the researchers were able to analyze this data so quickly, Aaron Ritter, associate staff of neuropsychiatry and behavioral neurology at Cleveland Clinic Lou Ruvo Center for Brain Health, told Being Patient in an email statement.

But Ritter cautioned that there may be other factors affecting the results: We know very little about the populations being analyzed, he said.

Indeed, the researchers did not have data about whether the study participants had mild cognitive impairment, and lived in nursing homes. According to David Melzer, an author of the study and professor of epidemiology and public health at University of Exeter, the latest available data about study participants dementia diagnoses was 2017.

Ritter added, My biggest concern is that given the [mean] age of those being analyzed 68 years old the relationship between COVID-19 and the gene ApoE4 could be more affected by the patients cognitive status than genetic status.

He noted that people who carry two copies of ApoE4 are likely to have some form of cognitive impairment by the age of 68. They may forget to take their medications, be in poorer overall health, and forget to keep their hands clean, all of which could be variables in their increased likeliness for contracting COVID-19.

Axel Montagne, Associate Professor of Research Physiology & Neuroscience at University of Southern California, said it is too early to conclude that ApoE4 increases peoples risk of contracting COVID-19: [The study] is very interesting but you have to take it with a grain of salt.

Montagne pointed out that some participants may have developed dementia after 2017. Also, some may have lived in nursing homes where there are high rates of infections.

This study, which I would consider preliminary data, is important and a step in the right direction, Ritter said. If verified in a larger study with younger, better characterized patient participants, it would help us understand why some people may be at higher risk for serious complications from COVID-19.

While the link between COVID-19 and ApoE4 is still up for debate, it is clear that the virus impacts the brain. Past research shows that about 36 percent of patients with COVID-19 develop symptoms such as headache, numbness or tingling and impaired consciousness. Autopsy reports reveal that patients suffer from swelling and inflammation in the brain, and the degeneration of neurons.

Just as it is too soon to take the recent studys suggestions as conclusive evidence, it is too soon to discount them. Past research suggests that indeed, ApoE4 can meddle with the bodys immune responses.

ApoE proteins are involved in immune response to infections, said Stephen Dominy, co-founder and Chief Scientific Officer of biopharmaceutical company Cortexyme. Its possible that ApoE4, for example, is not as good at the immune response to SARS-CoV-2 infections of COVID-19.

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Human Behavior

What Jobs Can I Get With a PhD in Human Behavior? | Work …

The study of human behavior encompasses a variety of disciplines, including psychology, sociology, human development and behavior analysis. Because a doctorate in human behavior offers expert knowledge in mental disorders, social behaviors and relationships, it is suitable for careers in human and social service workers, as well as academia.

A career in human services might encompass a number of jobs, from counselors, community planners and behavior specialists to advocates who champion certain causes and consultants who provide expertise to social services agencies and other clients. Experienced human service workers should find plenty of advancement opportunities once they receive a doctorate in human behavior. For example, this advanced degree can better prepare someone to train, motivate and manage others. Consequently, she might pursue a career as a program administrator, director of development, director of advocacy, or executive director of a non-profit group or social services agency.

Most people with a Ph.D. in human behavior teach at the undergraduate and graduate level. In addition to teaching basic classes in psychology, some advanced courses might also be taught. This includes classes in organizational behavior, social psychology, human development, behavioral research and abnormal psychology. Along with teaching college, those with a Ph.D. in human behavior can find work as guest lecturers, motivational speakers or professional seminar leaders.

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Many behavioral scientists work in the private sector. Most often they are employed in human resources, corporate training, sales or organizational development. They might use their knowledge of human behavior to build teams, implement corporate policy changes, develop training and leadership programs, create a marketing strategy, or recruit talented individuals.

Human behavior doctoral programs provide extensive education and knowledge in certain areas of research. This includes training in statistics, research methodology and behavioral assessment. Those with a Ph.D. in human behavior can pursue research job opportunities at colleges, government agencies, non-profit foundations and law enforcement department. For example, they might work as researchers or analysts in the field of criminal profiling and forensics.

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Human Behavior

Much Nothing about Ado: The Uselessness of Dehumanized Darwinism – Discovery Institute

Humans are mere animals in Darwinian thinking. The same evolutionary mechanisms and selective pressures that make fruit flies cooperate, or fish to swarm, or rams to bash their heads together, cause Homo sapiens to form political parties, revolt against kings, or cheer at baseball games. Human exceptionalism is omitted from their equations. According to Darwinians, every human behavior, as well as every fish behavior or fruit fly behavior or chimpanzee behavior, is a consequence of natural selection. If this premise were scientific, evolutionary anthropologists should be able to model human behavior and make predictions.

Suppose a scientist tells you about his new model. It goes like this:

If we assume X, then Y might result under particular circumstances, as long as we hold A constant, as Dr. Wizard surmised in his widely accepted model of the evolution of human and non-human animal behavior H. But according to our revised model, the situation is more complex. It turns out that B is a function of C, which affects A in unpredictable ways, resulting in chaotic behavior, depending on whether selection is taken into account. When selection is not considered, stable cyclic behavior is a possible outcome, at least in some studies, but those models do not correlate with field observations. Our revised model finds that D(E) has been overlooked, which is likely influenced by F(P), and since A is not always constant, as has been assumed, one might get a stable equilibrium, or a cycle, or chaos, depending on the weather. Its complicated.

Are you impressed by this advance toward the scientific understanding of human nature?

Something very similar to it was just published in PNAS by four scientists from Stanford and Tel Aviv Universities pretending to explain Cultural evolution of conformity and anticonformity. Conformity might be illustrated by a fruit fly imitating its neighbors behavior, or a teen following what the other teens are doing. Anticonformity might be a bird leaving the flock, or a man defying his states coronavirus lockdown guidelines. To Kaleda Krebs Denton, Yoav Ram, Uri Liberman, and Marcus W. Feldman, the subjects in the population make no difference, because Were all in this [Darwinian thing] together.

The evolutionary dynamics of cultural variants under conformist- and anticonformist-biased transmission have implications for humans and nonhuman animals. Humans display both conformist and anticonformist biases, and models of conformist-biased transmission have been proposed to explain large-scale human cooperation. Nonhuman animals have been shown to display conformist biases in mating and foraging decisions. Here, we investigate established mathematical models of conformist and anticonformist bias with and without selection and find complex dynamics, including multiple stable polymorphic equilibria, stable cycles, and chaos. [Emphasis added.]

This paper illustrates two things: (1) Darwinian theory is utterly useless when applied to human behavior, and (2) no amount of mathematical hand-waving can fix bad premises.

Admittedly, there may be a little predictability to human behavior in regard to conformity. When a wave starts in a football stadium, most people (but not all) will cheerfully join in to keep it going. Every parent worries about peer pressure their offspring will face at college. Military recruits are drilled to obey orders, fearing the bad consequences of disobedience. But people are not fish! Papers like this one relegate humans to pawns of evolutionary forces. Its a denial of free will. And its absurd; if a person conforms, natural selection did it. If the person does not conform, natural selection did that, too. Natural selection is Darwins catch-all explanation for everything, even opposite things. Daniel Dennett called it a universal acid, but didnt catch the fact that it dissolves its container, too evolutionary theory itself! In the end, it explains absolutely nothing.

Nave readers of this PNAS paper might be intimidated by the math. You can ignore the following example paragraph, because it is so vague, it has nothing to do with the real world. Human behavior is a subject that matters to all of us, but this Darwinian approach to behavior signifies much nothing (emptiness) about ado (fuss, or busy activity about something that matters). To borrow another line from Shakespeare, it is full of sound and fury, signifying nothing. The real message is in the theory rescue words between the symbols:

It might be expected that if p=12 is the unique polymorphic equilibrium, then either p=0 and p=1 are both stable and p=12 is not stable, or both p=0 and p=1 are not stable and p=12 is stable, since it is a protected polymorphism. In fact, when p=0 and p=1 are both stable, there is global convergence to one of them; p=12 is not stable, such that [0,12) is the domain of attraction of p=0 and (12,1] that of p=1. However, when both p=0 and p=1 are not stable, then even when p=12 is the unique polymorphic equilibrium, it is possible that p=12 is not stable. For example, following Eq. B8 in SI Appendix, section B, let n=1+(12)n2n1j=kD(j)n(nj)(2jn). From Eq. 4, the lower bound of n occurs when D(j)=j for all kjn1, in which case all of the D(j) s are negative and p=12 is unique by Result 3. SI Appendix, Table S1 presents the lower bounds on n for n=3,4,,20. The bounds on D, namely, j

On and on this paper goes, manipulating symbols this way and that, qualifying every situation with exceptions, ending with a final dramatic letdown:

Our detailed analysis of the two-population case without selection illustrates how complex the relationship between migration and conformist transmission can be. If the conformity coefficients are the same in both populations, two polymorphic equilibria other than (12,12), as well as the fixation states (0,0) and (1,1), can be stable if the migration rate is less than 18 and the conformity coefficient is large enough (Eq. 64). However, if this coefficient is small enough, only the fixation states are stable.

Thus the claim that conformist transmission generates a population-level process that creates and maintains group boundaries and cultural differences through time (ref. 4, p. 231) is not always true.

Does their model make any predictions? No. Is it falsifiable? No. Did it advance human understanding in any measurable way? Certainly not. In fact, it undermined earlier models that tried to do the same thing by noting more exceptions and omissions. Whatever it is trying to model is critically dependent on unprovable assumptions and false premises, namely, that humans are mere animals. It is hard to find any redeeming value in this exercise, and yet the NAS printed it gleefully, because it is Darwinian.

Theres a stronger reason for dismissing this paper. As Nancy Pearcey has shown on ID the Future, Darwinians almost always fail to apply their own models to themselves. If these four authors really believed their own assumptions, the act of writing the paper was a consequence of natural selection, too. They didnt mean any of it. They were not searching for unbiased truth. They merely wanted to boost their own fitness, and the best way to do it was to take the conformist position on Darwinism. One could go further and say their minds were not even involved; the words on the page came about by selection pressure.

Another article in PNAS is downright scary. In an article on Science and Culture (sound familiar?), David Adam advocates spinning fictions by scientists. The title is, Science and Culture: Design fiction skirts reality to provoke discussion and debate. By design fiction, he means that researchers are learning how to create fake realities, in order to watch how humans react. He starts with an example:

In October 2015, researchers presented an unusual paper at a computer science conference in London. The paper described the promising results of a pilot project in which a local community used surveillance drones to enforce car parking restrictions and to identify dog owners who failed to clean up after their pets. Controlled by four elderly retirees, the drones buzzed around the city and directed council officials on the ground.

The paper and its accompanying video generated lively discussion about the ethics and regulation of drone use among delegates at the CHI PLAY conference. But there was a catch: The paper, the video, and the pilot scheme were fictional, as the researchers admitted at the end of both the paper and the presentation.

David Adam doesnt appear to have any ethical qualms about misleading people in this way. It generated lively discussion, thats all. The ethical qualms were about drone use not about the fictional scheme, and fibbing for science. The experiment was provocative by design.

Design fiction is one of a number of overlapping terms that have emerged in the last decade or so to describe the process by which designers, researchers, artists, engineers, and technologists devise and sometimes present or publish scenarios to provoke debate.

Is that not like evidence that Russians are trying to divide Americans by provoking discord from both sides of the aisle? The popular YouTube channel Smarter Every Day spoke with the leading social media giants to show how the Internet is filled with bots using high tech to manipulate public opinion. What if science journals did that? What if they decided never to reveal that their design fiction research was all fictional? Who could trust any research ever again?

Circling around, why not just dismiss the PNAS paper about the evolution of conformity and call it design fiction? If it is fine for the researchers to dissemble, it is fine for their readers to dismiss it as Darwinian fiction. Were onto them. We are human beings. We dont get pushed around by blind, unguided processes like natural selection. We use our minds. If they respond with the claim that natural selection nudged you into the anticonformist position, we can counter with, And natural selection nudged you to write this paper.

Photo: Football fans do The Wave at the University of Michigan, by Ken Lund from Reno, Nevada, USA / CC BY-SA.

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Much Nothing about Ado: The Uselessness of Dehumanized Darwinism - Discovery Institute

Human Behavior

Should you fly yet? Here’s what an epidemiologist and an exposure scientist say – CNN

Editor's Note The views expressed in this commentary are solely those of the writer. CNN is showcasing the work of The Conversation, a collaboration between journalists and academics to provide news analysis and commentary. The content is produced solely by The Conversation.

(CNN) We don't know about you, but we're ready to travel. And that typically means flying.

We have been thinking through this issue as moms and as an exposure scientist and infectious disease epidemiologist. While we've decided personally that we're not going to fly right now, we will walk you through our thought process on what to consider and how to minimize your risks.

Why the fear of flying?

The primary concern with flying -- or traveling by bus or train -- is sitting within six feet of an infected person. Remember: Even asymptomatic people can transmit. Your risk of infection directly corresponds to your dose of exposure, which is determined by your duration of time exposed and the amount of virus-contaminated droplets in the air.

A secondary concern is contact with contaminated surfaces. When an infected person contaminates a shared armrest, airport restroom handle, seat tray or other item, the virus can survive for hours though it degrades over time. If you touch that surface and then touch your mouth or nose, you put yourself at risk of infection.

Before you book, think

While there is no way to make air travel 100% safe, there are ways to make it safer. It's important to think through the particulars for each trip.

One approach to your decision-making is to use what occupational health experts call the hierarchy of controls. This approach does two things. It focuses on strategies to control exposures close to the source. Second, it minimizes how much you have to rely on individual human behavior to control exposure. It's important to remember you may be infectious and everyone around you may also be infectious.

The best way to control exposure is to eliminate the hazard. Since we cannot eliminate the new coronavirus, ask yourself if you can eliminate the trip. Think extra hard if you are older or have preexisting conditions, or if you are going to visit someone in that position.

If you are healthy and those you visit are healthy, think about ways to substitute the hazard. Is it possible to drive? This would allow you to have more control over minimizing your exposures, particularly if the distance is less than a day of travel.

You're going, now what?

If you choose to fly, check out airlines' policies on seating and boarding. Some are minimizing capacity and spacing passengers by not using middle seats and having empty rows. Others are boarding from the back of the plane. Some that were criticized for filling their planes to capacity have announced plans to allow customers to cancel their flights if the flight goes over 70% passenger seating capacity.

Federal and state guidance is changing constantly, so make sure you look up the most recent guidance from government agencies and the airlines and airport you are using for additional advice, and current policies or restrictions.

While this may sound counterintuitive, consider booking multiple, shorter flights. This will decrease the likelihood of having to use the lavatory and the duration of exposure to an infectious person on the plane.

After you book, select a window seat if possible. If you consider the six-foot radius circle around you, having a wall on one side would directly reduce the number of people you are exposed to during the flight in half, not to mention all the people going up and down the aisle.

Also, check out your airline to see their engineering controls that are designed or put into practice to isolate hazards. These include ventilation systems, on-board barriers and electrostatic disinfectant sprays on flights.

When the ventilation system on planes is operating, planes have a very high ratio of outside fresh air to recirculated air -- about 10 times higher than most commercial buildings. Plus, most planes' ventilation systems have HEPA filters. These are at least 99.9% effective at removing particles that are 0.3 microns in diameter and more efficient at removing both smaller and larger particles.

A passenger at Pittsburgh International Airport travels through security on May 7, 2020.

Jeff Swensen/Getty Images

How to be safe from shuttle to seat

From checking in, to going through security to boarding, you will be touching many surfaces. To minimize risk:

Bring hand wipes to disinfect surfaces such as your seat belt and your personal belongings, like your passport. If you cannot find hand wipes, bring a small washcloth soaked in a bleach solution in a zip bag. This would probably freak TSA out less than your personal spray bottle, and viruses are not likely to grow on a cloth with a bleach solution. But remember: More bleach is not better and can be unsafe. You only need one tablespoon in four cups of water to be effective.

Bring plastic zip bags for personal items that others may handle, such as your ID. Bring extra bags so you can put these things in a new bag after you get the chance to disinfect them.

Wash your hands or use hand sanitizer as often as you can. While soap and water is most effective, hand sanitizer is helpful after you wash to get any parts you may have missed.

Once you get to your window seat, stay put.

Wear a mask. If you already have an N95 respirator, consider using it but others can also provide protection. We do not recommend purchasing N95 until health care workers have an adequate supply. Technically, it should also be tested to make sure you have a good fit. We do not recommend the use of gloves, as that can lead to a false sense of security and has been associated with reduced hand hygiene practices.

If you are thinking about flying with kids, there are special considerations. Getting a young child to adhere to wearing a mask and maintaining good hygiene behaviors at home is hard enough; it may be impossible to do so when flying. Children under 2 should not wear a mask.

Each day, we are all constantly faced with decisions about our own personal comfort with risk. Arming yourself with specific knowledge about your airport and airline, and maximizing your use of protective measures that you have control over, can reduce your risk. A good analogy might be that every time you get in the car to drive somewhere there is risk of an accident, but there is a big difference between driving the speed limit with your seat belt on and driving blindfolded, 60 miles an hour through the middle of town.

Paloma Beamer is an Associate Professor of Environmental Health Sciences at University of Arizona. She is President of the International Society of Exposure Science, a not-for-profit organization and receives funding from NIH, EPA, Agricola Alta Pozo Manuel and the Pima County Health Department.

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Should you fly yet? Here's what an epidemiologist and an exposure scientist say - CNN