Category Archives: Neuroscience

Neuroscience

Aarhus University to open new engineering and neuroscience research center – News-Medical.Net

Reviewed by Emily Henderson, B.Sc.Nov 17 2020

A new cross-disciplinary center will develop brain-machine interface technologies. One of the goals is to develop the next generation of technology to monitor, diagnose, and treat brain diseases while at the same time developing brand new brain-inspired AI hardware.

On Monday the 8th of February 2021, Aarhus University will officially open its doors to ibrAIn - a new engineering and neuroscience research center. ibrAIn is the first center in Denmark with a goal to develop new brain interfacing technologies enabled by new artificial intelligence (AI) hardware.

The center links will be part of NeuroCampus Aarhus (NCA), a research network already in place which brings together world-leading neuroscience research from Aarhus University (AU) and the Danish Neuroscience Center (DNC) at Aarhus University Hospital (AUH).

ibrAIn will be located at the newly established Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering under the Integrated Nanoelectronics research group and will bring together researchers from across AU and NCA. The center supports Aarhus University's strategy and vision to be an international leader in neuroscience research.

The ibrAIn center will provide a strong strategic link between the Faculty of Health and the Faculty of Technical Sciences. It's a perfect example of the university's leading, interdisciplinary research into neuroscience, and it showcases technical sciences at their best: How we can develop next-generation technologies in a synergetic link with other disciplines in the endeavour to make a difference for society."

Eskild Holm Nielsen, Dean of the Faculty of Technical Sciences, Aarhus University

Associate Professor Farshad Moradi will be heading the new center. He is currently in charge of Integrated Nanoelectronics and ICElab, the research group's laboratory.

The group are among the pioneers in designing integrated circuits for biomedicine and are developing the next generation of technologies to drastically reduce energy consumption for integrated electronics. The group is currently running several Horizon 2020 funded projects within the fields of brain-inspired data processing, memory design, biomedicine and energy harvesting technologies.

For example, the team is leading the way in developing battery-less nanorobots that can use light to modulate neurons inside the brain and cure neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease.

The team is also developing novel AI hardware: A new type of computing system that mimics the structure of the brain and has the potential to massively improve the performance of state-of-the-art computer systems, while at the same time drastically lowering the energy consumption.

"The new centre and the collaboration with NeuroCampus Aarhus mark an important milestone for our research into the interface between electronics and the human brain. We see a huge potential in our research here at ibrAIn - both in terms of understanding and treating neurological diseases, and exploring the development of novel AI hardware that can change the game for computerised systems of the future," says Associate Professor Farshad Moradi.

Professor Jens Christian Hedemann Srensen, partner and chair at the Danish Neuroscience Center and NCA, agrees:

"We bring a long and great experience working with neuromodulation and treatments of neurological diseases such as Parkinson's disease, tremor, epilepsy and spasticity by influencing the nervous system using various devices to the collaboration. Therefore, we're very much looking forward to being part of the ibrAIn centre, where Farshad Moradi is developing the next generation of these brain-machine interface technologies that we'll then translate into diagnostics and treatment at AUH and, ultimately, at hospitals worldwide," he says.

The new center will also play a role in AU's digitalisation strategy, which focuses partly on research into technologies and methods to better understand and interact with the human brain.

Due to the coronavirus situation, the opening of the center on 8 February 2021 will be an online event.

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Aarhus University to open new engineering and neuroscience research center - News-Medical.Net

Neuroscience

It’s Not Your Tech, It’s Your Brain: Neuroscience Can Be the Missing Piece in Digital Transformation – GlobeNewswire

STAMFORD, Conn., Nov. 16, 2020 (GLOBE NEWSWIRE) -- New neuroscientific coaching techniques can help executives shape a corporate culture based on emotional and conversational agility and nurture high-performing teams that embrace continuous change, say experts with Information Services Group (ISG) (Nasdaq: III), a leading global technology research and advisory firm.

Near-universal levels of anxiety and uncertainty brought on by the pandemic, social unrest and economic upheaval have organizations and their employees on an emotional roller coaster, said Missy Lawrence-Johnston, ISG principal consultant, Organizational Change Management. For the many companies making all the right technological moves toward digital transformation but not getting the expected results, it may be time to look at the human side of digital.

Lawrence-Johnston will be joined by David Christie, group vice president and head of digital strategy implementation for global biotech company CSL Behring, and agile enterprise expert Ola Chowning, ISG partner, Digital Strategy and Solutions, to discuss how to apply brain science to become a more effective product and technology leader, in the next ISG Smartalks webinar, The Modern Digital Leader: Cultural Competency & Humility, Thursday, November 19, at 11 a.m., U.S. Eastern Time.

ISG works with CSL Behring and other enterprises to apply brain science to help manage risks associated with the human side of digital and dramatically reduce the amount of time it takes for a workforce to rebound from major disruption. Neuroscientific training and tools can help businesses thrive by supporting virtual leadership, diversity awareness, communications around sensitive messages and approaches to inspire action in others, even during massive shifts, such as the recent shift to a virtual workforce.

Leaders who apply neuroscience, the psychology of human dynamics and empathy to digital transformation can create a paradigm that fosters resilience and adaptability, Chowning said. Such approaches can deactivate employee fight-flight-or-freeze triggers and boost organizational effectiveness.

Chowning said coaching designed specifically to support virtual and mindful leadership, coupled with cultural and behavioral assessments, can lead to business structures that can handle whatever the future may bring.

To register for the ISG Smartalks webinar, visit the event website.

About ISG

ISG (Information Services Group) (Nasdaq: III) is a leading global technology research and advisory firm. A trusted business partner to more than 700 clients, including more than 75 of the worlds top 100 enterprises, ISG is committed to helping corporations, public sector organizations, and service and technology providers achieve operational excellence and faster growth. The firm specializes in digital transformation services, including automation, cloud and data analytics; sourcing advisory; managed governance and risk services; network carrier services; strategy and operations design; change management; market intelligence and technology research and analysis. Founded in 2006, and based in Stamford, Conn., ISG employs more than 1,300 digital-ready professionals operating in more than 20 countriesa global team known for its innovative thinking, market influence, deep industry and technology expertise, and world-class research and analytical capabilities based on the industrys most comprehensive marketplace data. For more information, visit http://www.isg-one.com.

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It's Not Your Tech, It's Your Brain: Neuroscience Can Be the Missing Piece in Digital Transformation - GlobeNewswire

Neuroscience

New NIH BRAIN Initiative awards move toward solving brain disorders – National Institutes of Health

News Release

Thursday, November 19, 2020

Researchers using recently developed tools to gain new insights into brain function.

The National Institutes of Health will fund more than 175 grants, totaling nearly $500 million, through the NIHs Brain Research through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies (BRAIN) Initiative, part of a large effort among federal and non-federal partners to use knowledge about how the brain works to develop more effective therapies for neurological disorders.

Recent discoveries and new technologies supported by the BRAIN Initiative provide a solid foundation for the next phase of the program, which will focus on large transformative projects and lay the foundation for novel interventions for human brain disorders, said John Ngai, Ph.D., director of the NIH BRAIN Initiative. We are moving closer to a complete list of all of the components in the brain and learning how those parts work together. That knowledge will enable us to develop better treatments for neurologic and neuropsychiatric diseases.

The researchers represent a variety of scientific disciplines from chemistry to engineering to psychology and more.

The new awards include efforts to use deep brain stimulation to enhance sleep in people with Parkinsons disease; explore the neural circuits behind pain; employ ultrasound technology to precisely deliver drugs to the brain; and help people with acute spinal cord injury recover movements and bladder control.

Scientists are also making significant advances in human brain imaging by developing a new type of MRI scanner to watch the brain in action as someone moves; generating ultra-high resolution images of brain chemistry using new PET technology; and using ultrasound to noninvasively map brain electrical activity.

Some grants support integrated research on neuroethical implications of BRAIN-funded neuroscience projects, including issues concerning certain types of neurosurgery and ethical challenges of using mobile neuroimaging technology in field studies.

Meanwhile, others will take a unique approach to studying the brain by developing a range of innovative model systems, beyond traditional fruit flies and rodents. For example, they will study the circuits behind the way an octopus sees and makes decisions; how moths detect harmful stimuli; and the brain connections bats use to navigate in the dark. These studies will provide insights into ways that brain circuitry can affect human behavior.

The BRAIN Initiative started in 2013 as a large-scale effort to accelerate neuroscience research by providing researchers with tools to study and treat human brain disorders. The NIH BRAIN Initiative has focused on brain circuit structure and function as well as the development of technologies to manipulate connections. To date, more than 900 awards totaling approximately $1.8 billion have been supported by the NIH BRAIN Initiative, which is collaboratively managed by 10 institutes.

A number of BRAIN Initiative-supported research findings have been published over the past year including identification of neurons that help rats envision future scenarios; the discovery of specific cells activated by general anesthesia and that may be potential targets for chronic pain treatments; advances in imaging technology that can measure brain activity up to 3,000 times per second in animals; examining nonverbal behavior in people with severe depression who receive deep brain stimulation; watching as odor-sensing cells within the nose react to complex smells; finding brain cells that can initiate torpor, a state of inactivity similar to hibernation; and a new device that may allow real-time control of prosthetic limbs.

For more information, please visit:https://braininitiative.nih.gov/

The NIH BRAIN Initiative is managed by 10 institutes whose missions and current research portfolios complement the goals of the BRAIN Initiative: National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, National Eye Institute, National Institute on Aging, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institute on Deafness and other Communication Disorders, National Institute of Mental Health, and National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke.

About the National Institutes of Health (NIH):NIH, the nation's medical research agency, includes 27 Institutes and Centers and is a component of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. NIH is the primary federal agency conducting and supporting basic, clinical, and translational medical research, and is investigating the causes, treatments, and cures for both common and rare diseases. For more information about NIH and its programs, visit http://www.nih.gov.

NIHTurning Discovery Into Health

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New NIH BRAIN Initiative awards move toward solving brain disorders - National Institutes of Health

Neuroscience

Global Neuroscience Antibodies and Assays Market Predicted to Witness Sustainable Evolution in Future 2020-2026 | Thermo Fisher, Abcam, Bio-Rad,…

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Neuroscience Antibodies and Assays Market Main Competitors are :Thermo Fisher, Abcam, Bio-Rad, Merck, Cell Signaling Technology, Genscript, Rockland Immunochemicals, BioLegend, Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Roche, Siemens

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Global Neuroscience Antibodies and Assays Market Predicted to Witness Sustainable Evolution in Future 2020-2026 | Thermo Fisher, Abcam, Bio-Rad,...

Neuroscience

Unique Schwann Cells: The Eyes Have It – UConn Today

The insulation around nerve cell components in our corneas have unique properties, and little is known about them. But UConn School of Medicine neuroscience professor Royce Mohan believes his lab is on the verge of uncovering a path to better understanding that ultimately could lead to several vision-preserving advances.

Learning more about the cellular environment in the cornea, including what are known as glial cells that wrap around the nerve cells axons, could have implications for healing after surgeries and corneal transplants, as well as nerve regeneration, not just in the eyes but potentially in other systems of the body.

In a paper published in the Journal of Neuroscience Research, lead author Paola Bargagna-Mohan, assistant professor of neuroscience, details a method of characterizing every cell in the cornea using an approach known as single-cell RNA sequence analysis to answer questions about the corneas healing process. The study was done through a collaboration with Paul Robson, associate professor and director of single cell biology at The Jackson Laboratory for Genomic Medicine (JAX), which houses state-of-the art facilities for this type of research.

Going in we knew there would be challenges, says Bargagna-Mohan, a recipient of a UConn Research Excellence Program award. After several attempts, we were finally able to optimize our experimental approach to our advantage. I was extremely excited to get the funding from the UConn Vice President for Research at this critical time to drive this project.

A material known as myelin insulates axons of nerve fibers and enhances transmission of impulses among neurons. But nature has made the cornea an exception. Myelin in the cornea would interfere with light transmission. Therefore, the non-myelinating corneal Schwann cells, aptly called so because they do not produce myelin, are adapted to maintain corneal transparency, optimizing the focus of light on the retina, a crucial element of our vision.

This class of glial cells, better known as Schwann cells, have never before been isolated and characterized, Mohan says. So this is the first big step we took to help this field move forward in trying to repair the nerves of the cornea after surgeries, and also to understand corneal pain.The Mohan Labs single-cell RNA sequence analysis enables access to these cells to study them to an unprecedented extent.

All the genes that are expressed in each of the cells can be characterized, Mohan says. But not all cells are equal, even within a certain cell type, cells are never equal. And so cells that are sitting on the peripheral side of the cornea could be very different from the cells in the middle of the cornea. And by characterizing them, we can actually interpret that information to know what genes are expressed at the corner of the eye versus the one in the middle of the eye.

Mohan, who holds the John A. and Florence Mattern Solomon Endowed Chair in Vision Biology and Eye Research, says this method already has uncovered unique genes that are not expressed in Schwann cells of other tissues, which may eventually solve the mystery of how corneal Schwann cells function without interfering with light transmission.

He has a grant application pending with the National Eye Institute to continue his study of these unique cells and their role in nerve repair and sensory function.

When it comes to corneal transplants relatively common procedures throughout the world that would be even more common if there were enough donor corneas available to meet demand one of the associated risks is the recipient doesnt necessarily regain full sensory function of the eye. The corneal nerves hypersensitivity to foreign bodies is an evolutionary mechanism of injury prevention.

If you dont get the sensory function, you may accidentally touch your eye and injure your cornea, and that could be very traumatic for someone whos just had a corneal transplant, Mohan says, noting that donor corneas generally can be preserved for several days. We would be very interested to know how the Schwann cells survive in the existing donor tissue. Is there something we could do to enhance their survival into even higher levels? And, as well, after the operation is done?

Sensory function is also a consideration for those who undergo laser-assisted in-situ keratomileusis. Commonly known as LASIK, its a vision correction procedure in which the corneal axons are cut and the Schwann cells are injured.

They also get some side effects like burning sensation, gritty feeling, and the exact molecular mechanism of what causes it and how to help the tissue heal better is not known, Mohan says.

Another condition that could benefit from a better understanding of Schwann cells behavior is dry eye. While temporary dry eye is common, for some it can be a chronic condition in which the corneal nerves feel irritated.

Therapeutics are discovered by knowing which genes have to be activated or which ones have gone berserk that need to be subdued, Mohan says. What are these genes that are present in the Schwann cell doing when the cornea is injured? And from there, you ask the question, could you support nerve injury healing by either activating a gene or inhibiting something that has gone bad?

Better understanding of the Schwann cell genes and the proteins they encode could lead to, for example, a topical drop that could support wound healing by inhibiting these targeted proteins.

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Unique Schwann Cells: The Eyes Have It - UConn Today

Neuroscience

Neuroscience Market Growth Opportunities, Key Players, and Threads Analysis – PRnews Leader

Global Neuroscience Market: Overview

The global neuroscience market is expected to witness a promising growth in the next few years. The rising level of competition among the leading players and the rising focus on the development of new products are likely to offer promising growth opportunities throughout the forecast period. The research study on the global neuroscience market offers a detailed overview, highlighting the key aspects that are expected to enhance the growth of the market in the near future. The key segmentation and the competitive landscape of the market have also been mentioned at length in the research study.

Global Neuroscience Market: Key Trends

The rising trade of neuroscience consumables and devices for the diagnostics and imaging purpose of nervous system and brain is projected to encourage the growth of the global neuroscience market in the next few years. The function and structure of the nervous system and neurological disorders in several countries such as Russia and Poland is likely to enhance the growth of the overall market in the coming few years.

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Moreover, the rising awareness among consumers regarding to the benefits of advanced neuroscience devices, including combination of other imaging devices is projected to accelerate the growth of the global neuroscience market in the next few years.

Global Neuroscience Market: Market Potential

The rising government spending on the healthcare infrastructure, especially in developed regions is one of the major factors estimated to encourage the growth of the global neuroscience market in the next few years. The rising health spending in the U.S. is predicted to rise substantially, which is another key factor that is likely to enhance the market growth in the near future. In addition to this, the high adoption of new technologies and the rising spending on the research and development activities are expected to generate potential growth opportunities for the market players in the next few years.

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Global Neuroscience Market: Regional Outlook

Among the key regional segments, the Middle East and Africa is expected to hold a large share of the global neuroscience market in the next few years. The rapid development of the medical sector is predicted to enhance the growth of the Middle East and Africa market for neuroscience in the coming few years. Furthermore, Asia Pacific is estimated to witness a healthy growth in the coming years.

The rising geriatric population and the rising incidences of CNS disorders are predicted to encourage the growth of the market in the near future. Europe and North America are estimated to observe a promising growth in the next few years.

Global Neuroscience Market: Competitive Analysis

The global market for neuroscience is competitive in nature and is projected to witness a high level of competition among the key players in the next few years. The growing focus on the research and development activities and innovations is projected to support the growth of the overall market in the next few years. Moreover, the rising mergers and acquisitions and collaborations is likely to enhance the growth of the market in the near future.

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Some of the key players operating in the neuroscience market across the globe are Plexon Inc., Alpha Omega, Femtonics Ltd., Kendall Research Systems LLC, Doric Lenses Inc., Siemens Healthineers, GE Healthcare, Laserglow Technologies, Neuralynx, Thomas RECORDING GmbH, Mediso Ltd., TRIFOIL IMAGING, Prizmatix, and Neurotar.

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Neuroscience Market Growth Opportunities, Key Players, and Threads Analysis - PRnews Leader

Neuroscience

The Neuroscience Market To Get Back To The Holistic Mode With A CAGR Of 7.2% – TechnoWeekly

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With healthy CAGR of 6.4%, the globalneuroscience marketis likely to grow from US$ 301.6 Mn in 2016 to US$ 520.8 Mn by 2025 end. This growth is mainly fuelled by advancement in neuroimaging and increasing R & D in neuroinformatics. Neuroscience Market: Global Industry Analysis (2012-2016)and Forecast (2017-2025),is the new publication of Persistence Market Research that focuses on merger and acquisition, strategic collaborations and technology, and technology transfer agreements, which play a vital role in the global neuroscience market.

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Company Profiles

North America and Europe are expected to dominate the global neuroscience market in the assessed period of 8-years that is between 2017 and 2025.

Global Neuroscience Market: Relevance and Impact of Factors

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Global Neuroscience Market: Forecast by Component Type

On the basis of component type, the global neuroscience market is segmented into instrument, software and services. Instrument segmented is sub-segmented into MRI imaging systems and neuromicroscopy, while services segmented divided into consulting services, installation services and maintenance services.

Instrument segment dominated the global neuroscience market in revenue terms in 2016 and is projected to continue to do so throughout the forecast period. Instrument segment is the most attractive segment, with attractiveness index of 2.6 over the forecast period.

Instrument segment was valued at US$ 221.6 Mn in 2016 and is projected to be valued at US$ 408.1 Mn in 2025 growing at a CAGR of 7.2% during the forecast period. This segment is expected to accounts for high revenue contribution to the global neuroscience market as compared to software and services segments over the forecast period.

Software segment is expected to be the second most lucrative segment in the global neuroscience market, with attractiveness index of 0.3 during the forecast period. This segment was accounted for 15.4% value share in 2017 which is expected to drop down to 12.9 % revenue share in 2025.

Global Neuroscience Market: Forecast by End User

On the basis of end user, global neuroscience market is segmented into hospitals, diagnostic laboratories, research institutes, and academic institutes.

Diagnostics laboratory segment is expected to be the second most lucrative segment in the global neuroscience market by 2025 end. However, in terms of CAGR and revenue share, hospitals segment is expected to lead he market throughout the estimated period. In 2025, hospital segment is likely to grab 40.2% market share in 2025, expanding at a robust CAGR of 7.3% during the estimated period.

Research institutes segment is expected to be the least attractive segment in the global neuroscience market, with attractiveness index of 0.7 during the forecast period.

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Global Neuroscience Market: Forecast by Region

On the basis of region, global neuroscience market is segmented into North America, Latin America, Europe, APAC and MEA. North America dominated the global neuroscience market in revenue terms in 2016 and is projected to continue to do so throughout the forecast period.

North America is projected to be the most attractive market with attractiveness index of 2.3 during the forecast period. Europe is expected to be the second most lucrative market, with attractiveness index of 1.1 respectively during the forecast period.

Europe Neuroscience market accounted for 23.9% share in 2017 and is projected to account for 23.1% share by 2025 end.

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The Neuroscience Market To Get Back To The Holistic Mode With A CAGR Of 7.2% - TechnoWeekly

Neuroscience

Microglia, the brain’s trash collector cells, may play larger role in brain health, may reveal clues to disease treatments – National Institute on…

Microglia are a minority among brain cells, but a new study in mice is adding to the evidence that these trash collector cells may have a mightier role in brain health and disease, and could provide clues to new treatment targets for neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimers. Funded in part by NIA and published in Nature, this latest research suggests there is a microglia-driven negative feedback mechanism that is modifying how neurons act.

Neurons, which make up about 50% of brain cells, have long been viewed as the drivers of brain processes, such as thoughts and behavior. Meanwhile microglia, representing only about 10% of brain cells, have been seen as the clean-up crew. For their job as the brains immune cells, microglia remove dying neurons, prune synapses, and generally support the survival of neurons.

A research team at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai performed a series of experiments in mice, including the removal of microglia from specific brain regions. Led by Anne Schaefer, M.D., Ph.D., Professor of Neuroscience and Psychiatry, and a 2012 NIH Directors New Innovator Award Recipient, researchers compared neuronal responses to different insults and controls. When the microglia were removed, at first the neurons were fine, but then went haywire, showing a seizure response to insults.

The findings show a circuit between neurons and microglia that involve the molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP). When neurons are active, they release ATP, which attracts microglia. The microglia in turn break down ATP into forms of adenosine, which suppress synaptic transmission and neuron activity. Without microglia, or when microglia dont respond to ATP, the seizure response kicks in with excessive neuronal activity.

The researchers also looked at this circuit in an Alzheimers disease mouse model and saw the same seizure response. They hypothesize that this type of microglia-induced neuromodulation may go awry in neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimers and Huntingtons, and contribute to increases in neuron excitability and behavior changes that are associated with those disorders. Targeting the microglia system could potentially be a therapeutic protecting the brain from abnormal activation seen in neurodegenerative diseases.

As a next step, Dr. Schaefer and colleagues are starting to investigate the epigenetic mechanisms of microglia activation during aging and its contributions to neurodegenerative diseases. NIA recently awarded the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai a $2.99 million grant (number RF1AG068558) toward this effort targeting microglial epigenetic regulators specific to inflammation.

This research was funded in part by NIA grants R01AG045040, U01AG058635, and T32AG049688.

These activities relate to NIHs AD+ADRD Research Implementation Milestone 2.A, "Create new research programs that use data-driven, systems-based approaches to integrate the study of fundamental biology of aging with neurobiology of aging and research on neurodegeneration, AD and AD-related dementias to better understand the mechanism(s) of vulnerability and resilience in AD across all levels of biologic complexity (from cellular to population level) and to gain a deeper understanding of the complex biology and integrative physiology of healthy and pathologic brain aging." They also relate to Milestone 2.B, "Establish new research programs that employ data-driven, systems-based approaches to understand the interaction between peripheral systems (in particular: immune, metabolic, microbiome) and the brain and the impact of this interaction on brain aging and neurodegeneration. These efforts should integrate human and animal model research and characterize the extent to which molecular (epigenomic, transcriptomic and metabolomic) variation identified in peripheral tissues can be used as a proxy for inter-individual variation in the trajectories of brain aging, AD and AD-related dementias."

Reference: Badimon A, et al. Negative feedback control of neuronal activity by microglia. Nature. 2020;586(7829):417-423. doi: 10.1038/s41586-020-2777-8.

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Microglia, the brain's trash collector cells, may play larger role in brain health, may reveal clues to disease treatments - National Institute on...

Neuroscience

The Idea of the Brain by Matthew Cobb review lighting up the grey matter – The Guardian

Is your brain a computer? Is mine? Is Boris Johnsons? And if so, where is the tech support hotline? Brains were once conceived of as marvellous clockwork, pneumatic or hydraulic devices, but for the last 70 years we have been encouraged to think of our wetware as our own modern technology. But the brain doesnt contain any digital switches and was not designed for the convenience or edification of any external user. The idea that it is a computer is just the latest in a series of metaphors, and one that is looking increasingly threadbare.

So runs the argument of the zoologist Matthew Cobbs rich and fascinating book, which divides neatly into two parts, or hemispheres. The first is a cultural and scientific history of how previous ages thought of the brain. It was a collection of cavities through which animal spirits flowed; then it became a machine, which was a breakthrough idea: perhaps you could investigate it as you might any machine, by breaking it down into its constituent parts and seeing what they do. This suggestion had to be invented, being first put forward in the mid-17th century by the Danish anatomist (and bishop) Nicolaus Steno.

A century later, electricity was the fashionable thing, so natural philosophers began to theorise that perhaps the animal spirits sloshing around in the brain were in fact a kind of electric fluid. Perhaps, suggested one, the brain was very like a galvanic battery. By the mid-19th century, nerves were inevitably compared to telegraph wires and the brain to a completely electrical system.

Around the same time, the craze for phrenology produced detailed maps of how mental functions were localised in certain parts of the brain, which were incorrect, although the principle of (partial) localisation of brain function remains valid. Evolutionary theory meanwhile threw a spanner into the works by highlighting our utter ignorance of how a messily evolved lump of grey blancmange can give rise to subjective experience, thought, and On the Origin of Species itself.

It cant be emphasised enough how complete our ignorance still is on this point, as Cobb reminds us. We understand many more things today about the brains neurons and how they operate together, but we still lack the faintest beginning of a clue as to why and how they produce your awareness that you are reading this sentence. Why should they? Why arent we all just unconscious robots? Cobb does pay attention throughout to the writings of modern philosophers on this topic, though he can at times seem to be conflating two very different views: the mainstream idea that conscious states are caused only by brain states (somehow), and the much more radical idea that conscious states literally are just brain states: that the two things are identical. The latter view, usually called eliminative materialism, has the virtue of magicking away the alleged problem of consciousness entirely, though at some cost in plausibility.

Leading the reader on through the history of cybernetics and early computers, Cobb arrives at the beginning of modern neuroscience in the 1950s. The rest of the book is a colourful history of that research, which celebrates extraordinary advances such as brain imaging, the understanding of neurotransmitters, and optogenetics (the ability to activate neurons with light), while consistently pointing out the huge limitations that remain in our current understanding.

What will be the next grand metaphor about the brain? Impossible to say, because we need to wait for the next world-changing technology. But in the mean time, Cobb suggests, the computer metaphor might be doing more harm than good. After all, he notes rightly: Metaphors shape our ideas in ways that are not always helpful.

Indeed, next time you are tempted to say that you are in two minds about some question, remember the experiments he describes here with subjects who had the link between their brain hemispheres severed (to address acute epilepsy): such people, it seemed, now had two entirely independent minds in one head, each perceiving and knowing things the other did not. Its impossible to imagine what that is like. But the response of the psychologist William Estes to the research is still wonderfully apt: Great, now we have two things we dont understand.

The Idea of the Brain by Matthew Cobb is published by Profile (30). To order a copy go to guardianbookshop.com. Delivery charges may apply.

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The Idea of the Brain by Matthew Cobb review lighting up the grey matter - The Guardian

Neuroscience

Cartographers of the brain – UCI News

Thanks to Xiangmin Xu and his team at the UCI School of Medicines Center for Neural Circuit Mapping, lazy eye, Alzheimers and other neurological diseases could become a thing of the past.

Opened earlier this year, the unit focuses on basic neuroscience research, advancing knowledge of the brain by defining mechanisms and pathways that underlie neurodevelopmental, neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders.

Our 30 to 40 investigators can join forces to tackle large-scale research projects with potentially far-reaching impact, including mechanistic studies ofAlzheimers disease, says director Xu, professor of anatomy & neurobiology.

The facilitys first project supported in part by the National Institutes of Health was on amblyopia, more commonly known as lazy eye. Stemming from unequal visual development early in life, it causes the brain to ignore signals from the weaker eye, resulting in a loss of neural connectivity and further impairing sight in that eye.

By subcutaneously administering subanesthetic ketamine, an antidepressant traditionally used for pain management, Xu and his researchers were able to reverse the effects of amblyopia and reactivate adult neural connectivity. In August, their findings were published in Current Biology, and while further testing is required to determine the full implications of this discovery, it could have a significant impact on the treatment of this disorder.

Additionally, with a $3.8 million award from the National Institute on Aging, center members are studying molecular changes in the brain caused by Alzheimers. Using mouse models that mimic the neurodegenerative disease, theyre exploring how the epigenome of major cell types, including neurons and non-neuronal cells such as astrocytes and microglia, shapes hippocampal circuit activity and behaviors during Alzheimers pathogenesis.

The research involves viral tracing, a method of implanting a harmless virus into a specific neuron in the brain and tracking its movement along neural pathways to determine cellular connectivity. Tracers travel along the interconnected pathways and, as these connections become increasingly damaged, plot the diseases progression and its effect on memory loss.Viral tracers are important tools for neuroanatomical mapping and will allow researchers to specifically target affected neurons with possible gene-editing or -repairing treatments in the future.

Our goal is to reveal the molecular changes that occur during the course of Alzheimers, impacting learning and memory, and identify a route toward early detection and new drug therapies for the disease, Xu says.

A critical component of the Center for Neural Circuit Mapping is the creation of a viral production facility to disseminate these novel molecular tools for amblyopia, Alzheimers and other potential diseases to the global neuroscience community.

Currently, there is no cure for Alzheimers disease, Xu says. And with millions of people, including 5.5 million Americans, affected by this debilitating condition, its increasingly critical that we develop superior early diagnostic techniques and new treatment strategies to care for them.

While the center is focused on cutting-edge breakthroughs in neuroscience, its staff is not limited to professors and postdoctoral students. The unit is active in UCIs Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program, and before the coronavirus outbreak, more than 20 undergrads worked there. Theyre trained by postdocs to better prepare them for careers in biomedical research. They also employ methods common in computer science and engineering, gaining wide-ranging experience in real-world situations.

The Center for Neural Circuit Mapping provides a strong infrastructure and many resources for investigators to develop new tools to further studies, Xu says, and it will help UCI researchers obtain federal funding for our critical work.

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Cartographers of the brain - UCI News