Category Archives: Biochemistry

Biochemistry

To divide or not to divide? The mother cell may decide – CU Boulder Today

When do cells decide to divide? For 40 years, the textbook answer has been that this decision occurs in the first phase of a cells existence right after a mother cell divides to become daughter cells.

But researchers at CU Boulder have found that its actually the mother cell that determines if its daughter cells will divide. The finding, explained in a new study out today in Science, sheds new light on the cell cycle using modern imaging technologies, and could have implications for cancer drug therapy treatments.

We see something different than what's in the textbooks, said Sabrina Spencer, senior author of the paper and assistant professor of biochemistry.

Cells choose to divide based on the amount of mitogens, or growth factors, they sense in their environment. The availability of mitogens drives the signal to proliferate: duplicate cellular contents and divide into two daughter cells. This is all part of the cell cycle.

Cancer cells can enter the cell cycle even if growth factors aren't there, said Spencer. Thats part of why they proliferate so much the cell cycle becomes dysregulated and growth continues unchecked.

Sabrina Spencer points to a specific cell in an image on a screen, which contains a population of cells expressing fluorescent reporters. (Credit: BioFrontiers Institute, CU Boulder)

Better understanding of why and when cells choose to proliferate, could help scientists tailor or expand the timing of cancer drug therapies.

In their experiments, the researchers found that rather than daughter cells deciding on their own whether to divide, they committed to another cell cycle or not immediately after division of the mother cell. This implies the decision was made in the previous cell cycle, because the daughter cells were already born on one path or another, according to Spencer.

That got us thinking that maybe all the sensing of the environment is actually happening in the mother cell cycle, said Spencer.

Previous textbook experiments had to first remove all growth factors in order to synchronize the cells cycling, which perturbs cell cycle behavior. But this new research used time lapse microscopy and cell tracking technologies, which allowed the scientists to film cells doing their own thing, on their own time.Doing the experiment this way led to very different results, said Spencer.

The researchers tracked thousands of cells across 48 hours, using computational cell tracking which can track the same cell through hundreds of sequential images.

Even 10 years ago, very few labs could track cells even for a couple of hours, said Spencer.

A mother cell divides into two daughter cells, and the daughter cell is trying to decide if it is going to divide again. The answer is that it depends on the mother cells history of growth factor signaling. (Credit: Sabrina Spencer)

When do cells care about mitogen (growth factors)? In the textbook model, researchers found that the daughter cell cared in the first phase of the cell cycle about mitogen. From this new research, CU Boulder scientists found that cells are actually sensing mitogen during the entirely of the mother cell cycle. (Credit: Sabrina Spencer)

Their next question was: when in the mother cell cycle does a cell decide if its daughter cells will divide?

To answer this, the researchers removed and replaced the growth factors which give the signal for the cell to divide for several hours at different phases in the mother cell cycle.

They found that the longer these growth factors were removed in the mother cell, the less likely the daughter cells were to divide. If the growth factors were removed for more than nine hours, none of the daughter cells ended up dividing.

We found that no matter when you blocked this signaling, cells can sense it, said Mingwei Min, first author and postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Biochemistry and BioFrontiers Institute. And not only can they sense it, they can remember that information for many hours, all the way through to the daughter cell cycle.

If cells are continually sensing growth factor signaling as this new paper found instead of only in the first phase of the daughter cycle, cancer drugs may have a longer window than previously believed to provide therapeutic effects.

But how are cells remembering the availability of growth factors? The key lies in a protein known as Cyclin D.

Normally, Cyclin D rises up in the second half of the cell cycle in the mother cell. But when growth factors were removed and replaced in the experiment, there was less Cyclin D at the end of the mother cell cycle, the study found.

And without as much Cyclin D, the daughter cells have less of the thing they need to be able to divide.

The fact that cells can store memory or integrate past history of growth factor availability is a new finding, said Spencer. The combination of fluorescent sensor design, long-term time-lapse microscopy, and cell tracking is really our forte that enabled this discovery.

Additional authors on this paper include Yao Rong and Chengzhe Tian of the Department of Biochemistry and the BioFrontiers Institute at CU Boulder.

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To divide or not to divide? The mother cell may decide - CU Boulder Today

Biochemistry

Artificial proteins that function as molecular logic gates – Tech Explorist

Scientists at the University of Washington School of Medicine have devised artificial proteins that can regulate gene expression inside human T-cells. Whats interesting, these proteins can function as molecular logic gates, tools are used to program the behavior of more complex systems.

Senior author David Baker, professor of biochemistry at the UW School of Medicine and director of the Institute for Protein Design, said,Bioengineers have made logic gates out of DNA, RNA and modified natural proteins before, but these are far from ideal. Our logic gates built from de novo designed proteins are more modular and versatile, and can be used in a wide range of biomedical applications.

Whether electronic or biological, logic gates sense and respond to signals in predetermined ways. One of the simplest is the AND gate; it produces output only when one input AND another are present.

For example, when typing on a keyboard, pressing the Shift key AND the A key produces an uppercase letter A. Logic gates made from biological parts aim to bring this level of control into bioengineered systems.

With the right gates operating inside living cells, inputs such as the presence of two different moleculesor one and not the othercan cause a cell to produce a specific output, such as activating or suppressing a gene.

Lead author Zibo Chen, a recent UW graduate student, said,The whole Apollo 11 Guidance Computer was built from electronic NOR gates. We succeeded in making protein-based NOR gates. They are not as complicated as NASAs guidance computers, but are a key step toward programming complex biological circuits from scratch.

Enlisting a patients immune in the battle against cancer growth has worked for specific types of the disease. In any case, focusing on strong tumors with this so-called CAR-T cell therapy approach has demonstrated challenging.

Scientists think part of the reason has to do with T cell exhaustion. Genetically altered T cells can fight for only so long before they stop working. There may be a way around this. With protein logic gates that respond to exhaustion signals, the team from UW Medicine hopes to prolong the activity of CAR T cells.

Chen said,Longer-lived T cells that are better programmed for each patient would mean more effective personalized medicine.

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Artificial proteins that function as molecular logic gates - Tech Explorist

Biochemistry

Letter to the Editor: Let there be music – Mount Desert Islander

To the Editor:

All acrossthe world, people are turning to music to help them cope and connect with others during the COVID-19 pandemic. First, we saw a plethora of handwashing songs and parodies. Next came the viral videos of people in Italy singing to each other from their balconies. The Facebook group, Quarantine Karaoke, has over 400,000 followers. Musicians are posting live concerts from home and choirs are sharing virtual group songs.

So many of us, unable to connect with each other in physical space, are doing so through music. It makes sense. Coronavirus fears have us feeling anxious, isolated and perhaps even depressed. We seem to intrinsically know that music can help us, in concrete and specific ways, withall ofthese feelings.

Making music encourages group cohesion and bonding. To music with others, people need to work together in a cooperative, synchronized manner. Research shows that when we make music together, people feel more bonded, more trusting and may even start tosynchronizeheartbeats.

Music also has a direct impact on our physiology and biochemistry. Making music reduces levels of the stress hormone cortisol and modulates levels of dopamine and serotonin, all which help improve mood.

One thing that excites me about the musical explosion happening right now is that music is being made byeveryone. Not just the professionals, but everyone. This is the way that music once was. Music was shared around the piano, in the legion hall, across the fire and on the front porch. Singing once was a part of everyday life and now, perhaps it is again.

So please, keep the music going. And when this current crisis passes, remember how important music was in helping us get through this. Remember it the next time your local school system wants to cut music programs from the budget, or community arts organizations come asking for donations. Professional musicians, music therapists, teachers, and community music groups are being financially devastated by the loss of paid work. Yet, the music goes on. Because what else can we do? We are human beings, we will persevere, and there will be music.

Carla Tanguay

Mount Desert

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Letter to the Editor: Let there be music - Mount Desert Islander

Biochemistry

Tulane researchers discover possible pathways to treating drug-resistant infections – News from Tulane

William Wimley holds the George A. Adrouny, Ph.D. Professorship in Biochemistry in the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at Tulane University School of Medicine.

Drug-resistant bacterial infections are on the rise, while the development of new antibiotics to fight these infections has slowed in recent decades. Mathematical models predict more than 10 million people will die annually from drug-resistant bacterial infections by 2050 if the current rates of increase continue. Now researchers at Tulane University have developed a novel way to identify a new class of antibiotics for use in the fight against drug-resistant bacteria. The results are published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

Membrane permeating antimicrobial peptides have long been considered a potentially promising class of antibiotic that could be used for wound treatment, however, while the peptides work well under laboratory conditions, previous studies have shown these chains of amino acids become inactive in the presence of host cells.

Researchers led by William Wimley, the George A. Adrouny, Ph.D. Professorship in Biochemistry at Tulane University School of Medicine, developed a new way using an animal model to identify compounds that protect wounds in mice from common drug-resistant bacterial infections, including MRSA.The researchers tested antimicrobial peptides directly in the presence of host cells and discovered which peptides retained their activity the longest. They also compared the peptide antibiotics to conventional antibiotics and found, while the bacteria rapidly became resistant to conventional antibiotics, it did not gain any resistance to the peptides.

The next step is to continue our studies in animal models of infection and explore the potential for these peptides to have real clinical applications, Wimley said. We need to fully characterize how they function and, if that works, move in the direction of clinical trials.

According to the Centers for Disease Control, more than 2.8 million antibiotic-resistant infections occur in the U.S. each year, and more than 35,000 people die as a result.

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Tulane researchers discover possible pathways to treating drug-resistant infections - News from Tulane

Biochemistry

UM biochemistry professor making hand sanitizer – Missoulian

Kelly Webster, chief of staff at the UM President's Office, helped Bridges order bulk quantities of the raw materials. The neurosciences lab in the Skaggs Building is currently empty, so he set up a space for mixing the alcohol and glycerol.

"I'm using 70% isopropyl," he explained. "The CDC recommends 70% for isopropyl and at least 60% for alcohol."

He made about 25 gallons of the viscous stuff earlier this week and distributed bulk jugs to firefighters, but he knows there's a need for smaller, individual-sized bottles. So he ordered a bulk quantity and hopes to funnel about 1,000 on Friday.

"It's not real high-tech here," he said, grinning and explaining how he's mostly improvising on everything except the proportion of the ingredients.

Other labs on campus donated equipment, he added, so it's a group effort. He's run into problems with the supply chain of course.

"Freaky things happen. One of the main suppliers of glycerol in Salt Lake City couldn't deliver because of the earthquake, so this came in from Texas," he said. "And one bottle company had bottles without caps, and another company had only caps but they were out of bottles."

Scott Whittenburg, UM's vice president for research and creative scholarship, said he's putting the material costs on a credit card right now and worrying about paying for it later. He said the UM community is working hard during the crisis.

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UM biochemistry professor making hand sanitizer - Missoulian

Biochemistry

Biochemistry captures the attention of medical school hopeful | News, Sports, Jobs – Williamsport Sun-Gazette

It hasnt taken long for the new biochemistry major at Lycoming College to spark interest among students.

Launched in the fall of 2018, the lab-based science that marries biology and chemistry is becoming a popular choice for students who aspire to work in academia, industrial settings, pharmaceuticals, health professions and more.

For Nicholas Russello 20 of Guilford, Conn., it was a biochemistry course that ignited in him a curiosity in research that hadnt existed before.

Biochemistry was not yet an established course of study when Russello started at Lycoming in the fall of 2016, so he pursued a degree as a biology and chemistry double major with plans to enter the medical field. With aspirations of becoming a surgeon, Russello had been focused solely on patient care. Instead of pursuing a research path, he opted to become an EMT (emergency medical technician) to get patient contact hours. But when Allison Saunders, assistant professor of biochemistry, joined the faculty in the fall of 2019, Russello took notice.

I thought biochemistry could be very interesting. I wanted to see how biology and chemistry are connected, and it ended up being one of my favorite courses to date, said Russello. I loved the way the material blended, and became not only happy, but excited to do research with Dr. Saunders.

Russello became the first Lycoming student to complete biochemistry research, spending the fall semester working with Saunders in the newly established biochemistry laboratory and later presenting Cloning and Expression of a Radical SAM Gene, in the chemistry colloquium.

The research is on a gene in the microorganism Clostridium populeti, that expresses a putative radical SAM protein in the gut microbiota of Parkinsons disease patients.

This area interests me primarily because it has large scale implications within the medical world. Biochemical research has provided many of the useful drugs that are present today. A further understanding of various proteins and their mechanisms of action can be pivotal toward understanding and treating diseases, thus affecting the lives of thousands or more, he said.

Nick is a motivated student, and his taking on a research project while I was setting up a brand new lab was a good fit, Saunders said. Hes set a high bar for the biochemistry research students who are sure to follow in his footsteps.

Looking back at the start of his undergraduate career, Russello settled on Lycoming because he thought that the small liberal arts and sciences environment would provide a unique opportunity to involve himself in many facets of campus life, both socially and academically, and become more well-rounded.

As a student athlete, Russello learned to balance his academics with his commitment to the Mens Lacrosse Team a commitment that sometimes required upwards of 30 hours per week.

By necessity, I became an expert at managing my time and living a healthy lifestyle. I can confidently say that being a student athlete has been pivotal in developing my drive. If Im not filling my time with something that will better me as a person, I have a nagging feeling that I can do more, he said. Research has opened my eyes to a realm in which I never thought Id find interest. I am willing and hopeful that I will be able to find an opportunity to continue to do research in medical school.

During his last semester as an undergraduate at Lycoming, Russello had some parting words for his fellow Warriors: I would encourage everyone to seek out opportunities they may think dont suit them. The beauty of Lycoming is that there is so much to discover and you never know what may interest you if you dont put yourself out there and find out.

Funding for the new major was established by Peter and Joyce Lynn, through the Peter 69 and Joyce Lynn Endowed Program in Biochemistry.

The Lynns passion for philanthropy and interest in STEM education has influenced their support of several significant college initiatives, including the addition of the Lynn Science Center the multi-curricular facility named after the couple for their leadership gift to the building.

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Biochemistry captures the attention of medical school hopeful | News, Sports, Jobs - Williamsport Sun-Gazette

Biochemistry

Miami names associate provost and dean of the graduate school – Miami Student

Michael Crowder, the current chair of Miami Universitys Chemistry and Biochemistry Department, has been named the new associate provost and dean of the graduate school effective July 1.

This is Crowders 25th year at Miami. He started as an assistant professor in 1995, and hes held the position of chair of the Chemistry and Biochemistry Department since 2013.

Crowder did not apply to the graduate dean position when it was first available. However, his concerns of low revenue, low national visibility and low enrollment numbers for the graduate program compelled him to apply for the position.

Crowder will also serve as interim vice president for research and innovation (VPRI).

Jim Oris held the position of associate provost, graduate school dean and VPRI until October 2019. Then, the positions were split, and Oris remained the VPRI and became associate dean of the graduate school. Rose Marie Ward became the interim dean of the graduate school and associate provost.

As of July 1, Crowder will hold all the positions, returning the responsibilities to one person.

I believe that Jim and Rose Marie did remarkable jobs under incredibly tough situations, Crowder wrote in an email to The Miami Student.

There are incredible challenges facing both positions, given budget issues caused by [the novel] coronavirus and pressures in higher education, Crowder wrote. So our teams need to be extremely strategic in the use of valuable resources and time.

Crowders vision for the graduate school has three aspects: to strengthen, build and modernize the program.

To strengthen the graduate school, Crowder aims to increase national visibility and create competition with other domestic graduate programs.

To build the graduate school, Crowder hopes to create new programs within the graduate school to gain revenue and enroll a larger student body.

To modernize the graduate school, Crowder aims to create a requirement of students to take an internship in their preferred occupation and to set up a study abroad opportunity if the funding is available. He also wants to increase the graduate schools online presence.

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Miami is known for its undergraduate program, not the graduate program, Crowder said. But grad education is very important. In order to have a good undergrad program, we need a good grad program.

@haubenstrickerc

haubence@miamioh.edu

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Miami names associate provost and dean of the graduate school - Miami Student

Biochemistry

Single mutation leads to big effects in autism-related gene – National Institutes of Health

News Release

Thursday, April 2, 2020

NIH study provides insight into one mechanism underlying the higher prevalence of males in some cases of autism.

A new study in Neuron offers clues to why autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is more common in boys than in girls. National Institutes of Health scientists found that a single amino acid change in the NLGN4 gene, which has been linked to autism symptoms, may drive this difference in some cases. The study was conducted at NIHs National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS).

Researchers led by Katherine Roche, Ph.D., a neuroscientist at NINDS, compared two NLGN4 genes, (one on the X chromosome and one on the Y chromosome), which are important for establishing and maintaining synapses, the communication points between neurons.

Every cell in our body contains two sex chromosomes. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one X and one Y chromosome. Until now, it was assumed that the NLGN4X and NLGN4Y genes, which encode proteins that are 97% identical, functioned equally well in neurons.

But using a variety of advanced technology including biochemistry, molecular biology, and imaging tools, Dr. Roche and her colleagues discovered that the proteins encoded by these genes display different functions. The NLGN4Y protein is less able to move to the cell surface in brain cells and is therefore unable to assemble and maintain synapses, making it difficult for neurons to send signals to one another. When the researchers fixed the error in cells in a dish, they restored much of its correct function.

We really need to look at NLGN4X and NLGN4Y more carefully, said Thien A. Nguyen, Ph.D., first author of the study and former graduate student in Dr. Roches lab. Mutations in NLGN4X can lead to widespread and potentially very severe effects in brain function, and the role of NLGNY is still unclear.

Dr. Roches team found that the problems with NLGN4Y were due to a single amino acid. The researchers also discovered that the region surrounding that amino acid in NLGN4X is sensitive to mutations in the human population. There are a cluster of variants found in this region in people with ASD and intellectual disability and these mutations result in a deficit in function for NLGN4X that is indistinguishable from NLGN4Y.

In females, when one of the NLGN4X genes has a mutation, the other one can often compensate. However, in males, diseases can occur when there is a mutation in NLGN4X because there is no compensation from NLGN4Y.

The current study suggests that if there is a mutation in NLGN4X, NLGN4Y is not able to take over, because it is a functionally different protein. If the mutations occur in regions of NLGN4X that affect the protein levels, that may result in autism-related symptoms including intellectual deficits. The inability of NLGN4Y to compensate for mutations in NLGN4X may help explain why males, who only have one X chromosome, tend to have a greater incidence of NLGN4X-associated ASD than females.

The knowledge about these proteins will help doctors treating patients with mutations in NLGN4X better understand their symptoms, said Dr. Roche.

This work was supported by the NIH Intramural Research Program.

The NINDSis the nations leading funder of research on the brain and nervous system.The mission of NINDS is to seek fundamental knowledge about the brain and nervous system and to use that knowledge to reduce the burden of neurological disease.

About the National Institutes of Health (NIH):NIH, the nation's medical research agency, includes 27 Institutes and Centers and is a component of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. NIH is the primary federal agency conducting and supporting basic, clinical, and translational medical research, and is investigating the causes, treatments, and cures for both common and rare diseases. For more information about NIH and its programs, visit http://www.nih.gov.

NIHTurning Discovery Into Health

TA Nguyen et al. A cluster of autism-associated variants on X-linked NLGN4X functionally resemble NLGN4Y. Neuron. April 2, 2020.

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Single mutation leads to big effects in autism-related gene - National Institutes of Health

Biochemistry

UH students turn alcohol project into hand sanitizer – UH System Current News

CTAHR students distilling alcohol into hand sanitizer.

Desperate times call for imaginative measures. Instead of making rum and ginger beer, students in the University of Hawaii at Mnoas College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources (CTAHR) Department of Molecular Biosciences and Bioengineering (MBBE) are using the knowledge they gained to distill hand sanitizer to help combat COVID-19.

The project began in early March, when classmates in fermentation biochemistry were originally planning to make rum for the annual CTAHR Awards Banquet by fermenting sugar and water to be distilled into alcohol. However, public shortages of hand sanitizer caused by COVID-19 led them to change direction and turn the product into hand sanitizer.

The class only had to alter a few steps in the process, including distilling the spirit to a greater percentage of ethanol. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention guidelines call for hand sanitizers to be at least 60 percent alcohol to kill the coronavirus, and the students product will meet that mark.

Fermentation biochemistry course consultant and MBBE PhD candidate Nick Sinclair is excited about the project. We are hoping that all of Hawaii will be able to benefit from us alleviating at least our section of the populace from having to buy hand sanitizer, he said. This is also a learning experience for everyone involved, so this experience enriches our education as well.

After distillation, the pulp of fresh, locally grown aloe provided by specialist Ken Leonhardt from the Department of Tropical Plant and Soil Sciences was extracted and blended smooth. This creates a gel-like consistency and keeps the spirit from drying out hands excessively. Next, it will be mixed with the distilled alcohol and the product will be tested.

Eventually, we hope to be able to distribute it at the very least to people around us, but the class is also working on other channels of distribution, said Sinclair.

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UH students turn alcohol project into hand sanitizer - UH System Current News

Biochemistry

Sexually transmitted infection testing restricted as testing kits needed for Covid-19 – Stuff.co.nz

Some sexually transmitted infection (STI) testing is being restricted nationwide, because ituses some of the elements needed forCovid-19 testing.

Many of thetests for sexuallytransmitted conditions like gonorrhoea and chlamydia use the same reagents and swabs used incoronavirustesting.

Compounding the problem was that New Zealand usually importedreagents-substances or mixtures used in chemical analysis - from Italy and the United States, two of the countrieshardest hit by coronavirus, providing a major obstacle inthe supply chain.

POOL VISION

Dr Caroline McElnay, director of public health, says there will be an increase in testing.

The New Zealand Microbiology Network began redirecting resources to Covid-19 testing last month, meaning chlamydia and gonorrhoea testing for asymptomatic patients was restricted from March 20.

READ MORE:*Coronavirus: New Zealand nears 800 cases, as another 89 cases are counted*Coronavirus: Jacinda Ardern wants to ramp up Covid-19 testing*Coronavirus: Dr Lance O'Sullivan seeking cheaper, quicker tests*Coronavirus: Doctors and nurses say tests are being withheld, PM says clinicians have enough swabs

Testing of known contacts should be treated "empirically" or through observation without testing, a statement read.

RNZ

An infectious diseases specialist says new, wider Covid-19 testing rules still won't test enough people to give a true picture of community transmission.

New Zealand Sexual Health Society Incorporated member, Dr Jane Morgan said there had been a "very clear directive" about increasing the amount of Covid-19 testing, which meant it had to be prioritised over STI testing for some patients.

"I don't think people appreciate some of the supply chain issues around the Covid-19 testing. It's a brand new test but it uses reagents which are used in other types of testing, like forgonorrhoea. Those reagents are manufactured overseas and need to be imported.

"Every country in the world is competing for that supply, so while we have been waiting for production to increase worldwide, New Zealand has been very clear about wanting to conserve the reagent it has so that it can go to Covid testing.

TOM LEE/STUFF

Dr Jo Hicks, a Waikato University biochemistry lecturer, examines gonorrhoea colonies on an agar plate inside one of the university's physical containment laboratories. (File photo)

"It's the consumables - all the swabs, the reagents, every single bit that's needed in order to do a Covid-19 test, making sure that those supply chains are secure so that we can ramp up testing to the level that we need," the Hamilton Sexual Health Service clinical director said.

Urgent STI work was taking place in time-sensitive cases, where a patient could come to harm in the next few weeks, as well as in sexual assault cases.

"But people who just want a peace-of-mind STI check, we're asking them to wait," Morgan said.

DOMINICO ZAPATA/STUFF

New Zealand Sexual Health Society's Dr Jane Morgan says people wanting routine STI checks are being asked to wait. (File photo)

Family Planning New Zealand national medical advisor Dr Beth Messenger said genital herpes testing in Wellington hadbeen restricted since March 16, with the agency also asked to limit all routine STI testing "due to lab capacity".

Most District Health Board sexual health services were only seeing clients with symptoms for face-to-face consultations, or following sexual assault, Messenger understood.

SUPPLIED

Family Planning New Zealand national medical advisor Beth Messenger says the agency was asked to restrict all routine STI screening from March 20. (File photo)

Blood testing for HIV, syphilis and hepatitis B and C was so far continuing to take place, but only clients showing symptoms were being seen for review.

Because diagnostic labs carried out the testing, ESR was unable to say how many STI tests were carried out each year.

However, the agency reported there had been 624cases of syphilis, 5993 cases of gonorrhoeaand 32,041 chlamydia casesin the year to June 30,2019.

Anyone who was showing STI symptoms or their partner hadtold them they hadbeen exposed was encouraged to contact sexual health clinics which werestill offeringconsultations over the phone.

If a clinician believeda face-to-face consultation was needed, patients could be seen in aclinic where numbers would be monitored to ensure social distancing was maintained.

Morgan hoped the Alert Level Four-enforced social distancing andlockdown messages to"staying within your bubble" would mean less STI testing would be needed.

The Ministry of Health says the major focus for labs is testing for Covid-19, so demand for other testing was low.

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Sexually transmitted infection testing restricted as testing kits needed for Covid-19 - Stuff.co.nz