Biochemistry, study of the chemical substances and processes that occur in plants, animals, and microorganisms and of the changes they undergo during development and life. It deals with the chemistry of life, and as such it draws on the techniques of analytical, organic, and physical chemistry, as well as those of physiologists concerned with the molecular basis of vital processes. All chemical changes within the organismeither the degradation of substances, generally to gain necessary energy, or the buildup of complex molecules necessary for life processesare collectively termed metabolism. These chemical changes depend on the action of organic catalysts known as enzymes, and enzymes, in turn, depend for their existence on the genetic apparatus of the cell. It is not surprising, therefore, that biochemistry enters into the investigation of chemical changes in disease, drug action, and other aspects of medicine, as well as in nutrition, genetics, and agriculture.

The term biochemistry is synonymous with two somewhat older terms: physiological chemistry and biological chemistry. Those aspects of biochemistry that deal with the chemistry and function of very large molecules (e.g., proteins and nucleic acids) are often grouped under the term molecular biology. Biochemistry is a young science, having been known under that term only since about 1900. Its origins, however, can be traced much further back; its early history is part of the early history of both physiology and chemistry.

The particularly significant past events in biochemistry have been concerned with placing biological phenomena on firm chemical foundations.

Before chemistry could contribute adequately to medicine and agriculture, however, it had to free itself from immediate practical demands in order to become a pure science. This happened in the period from about 1650 to 1780, starting with the work of Robert Boyle and culminating in that of Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier, the father of modern chemistry. Boyle questioned the basis of the chemical theory of his day and taught that the proper object of chemistry was to determine the composition of substances. His contemporary John Mayow observed the fundamental analogy between the respiration of an animal and the burning, or oxidation, of organic matter in air. Then, when Lavoisier carried out his fundamental studies on chemical oxidation, grasping the true nature of the process, he also showed, quantitatively, the similarity between chemical oxidation and the respiratory process. Photosynthesis was another biological phenomenon that occupied the attention of the chemists of the late 18th century. The demonstration, through the combined work of Joseph Priestley, Jan Ingenhousz, and Jean Senebier, that photosynthesis is essentially the reverse of respiration was a milestone in the development of biochemical thought.

In spite of these early fundamental discoveries, rapid progress in biochemistry had to wait upon the development of structural organic chemistry, one of the great achievements of 19th-century science. A living organism contains many thousands of different chemical compounds. The elucidation of the chemical transformations undergone by these compounds within the living cell is a central problem of biochemistry. Clearly, the determination of the molecular structure of the organic substances present in living cells had to precede the study of the cellular mechanisms, whereby these substances are synthesized and degraded.

There are few sharp boundaries in science, and the boundaries between organic and physical chemistry, on the one hand, and biochemistry, on the other, have always shown much overlap. Biochemistry has borrowed the methods and theories of organic and physical chemistry and applied them to physiological problems. Progress in this path was at first impeded by a stubborn misconception in scientific thinkingthe error of supposing that the transformations undergone by matter in the living organism were not subject to the chemical and physical laws that applied to inanimate substances and that consequently these vital phenomena could not be described in ordinary chemical or physical terms. Such an attitude was taken by the vitalists, who maintained that natural products formed by living organisms could never be synthesized by ordinary chemical means. The first laboratory synthesis of an organic compound, urea, by Friedrich Whler in 1828, was a blow to the vitalists but not a decisive one. They retreated to new lines of defense, arguing that urea was only an excretory substancea product of breakdown and not of synthesis. The success of the organic chemists in synthesizing many natural products forced further retreats of the vitalists. It is axiomatic in modern biochemistry that the chemical laws that apply to inanimate materials are equally valid within the living cell.

At the same time that progress was being impeded by a misplaced kind of reverence for living phenomena, the practical needs of man operated to spur the progress of the new science. As organic and physical chemistry erected an imposing body of theory in the 19th century, the needs of the physician, the pharmacist, and the agriculturalist provided an ever-present stimulus for the application of the new discoveries of chemistry to various urgent practical problems.

Two outstanding figures of the 19th century, Justus von Liebig and Louis Pasteur, were particularly responsible for dramatizing the successful application of chemistry to the study of biology. Liebig studied chemistry in Paris and carried back to Germany the inspiration gained by contact with the former students and colleagues of Lavoisier. He established at Giessen a great teaching and research laboratory, one of the first of its kind, which drew students from all over Europe.

Besides putting the study of organic chemistry on a firm basis, Liebig engaged in extensive literary activity, attracting the attention of all scientists to organic chemistry and popularizing it for the layman as well. His classic works, published in the 1840s, had a profound influence on contemporary thought. Liebig described the great chemical cycles in nature. He pointed out that animals would disappear from the face of the Earth if it were not for the photosynthesizing plants, since animals require for their nutrition the complex organic compounds that can be synthesized only by plants. The animal excretions and the animal body after death are also converted by a process of decay to simple products that can be re-utilized only by plants.

In contrast with animals, green plants require for their growth only carbon dioxide, water, mineral salts, and sunlight. The minerals must be obtained from the soil, and the fertility of the soil depends on its ability to furnish the plants with these essential nutrients. But the soil is depleted of these materials by the removal of successive crops; hence the need for fertilizers. Liebig pointed out that chemical analysis of plants could serve as a guide to the substances that should be present in fertilizers. Agricultural chemistry as an applied science was thus born.

In his analysis of fermentation, putrefaction, and infectious disease, Liebig was less fortunate. He admitted the similarity of these phenomena but refused to admit that living organisms might function as the causative agents. It remained for Pasteur to clarify that matter. In the 1860s Pasteur proved that various yeasts and bacteria were responsible for ferments, substances that caused fermentation and, in some cases, disease. He also demonstrated the usefulness of chemical methods in studying these tiny organisms and was the founder of what came to be called bacteriology.

Later, in 1877, Pasteurs ferments were designated as enzymes, and, in 1897, the German chemist E. Buchner clearly showed that fermentation could occur in a press juice of yeast, devoid of living cells. Thus a life process of cells was reduced by analysis to a nonliving system of enzymes. The chemical nature of enzymes remained obscure until 1926, when the first pure crystalline enzyme (urease) was isolated. This enzyme and many others subsequently isolated proved to be proteins, which had already been recognized as high-molecular-weight chains of subunits called amino acids.

The mystery of how minute amounts of dietary substances known as the vitamins prevent diseases such as beriberi, scurvy, and pellagra became clear in 1935, when riboflavin (vitamin B2) was found to be an integral part of an enzyme. Subsequent work has substantiated the concept that many vitamins are essential in the chemical reactions of the cell by virtue of their role in enzymes.

In 1929 the substance adenosine triphosphate (ATP) was isolated from muscle. Subsequent work demonstrated that the production of ATP was associated with respiratory (oxidative) processes in the cell. In 1940 F.A. Lipmann proposed that ATP is the common form of energy exchange in many cells, a concept now thoroughly documented. ATP has been shown also to be a primary energy source for muscular contraction.

The use of radioactive isotopes of chemical elements to trace the pathway of substances in the animal body was initiated in 1935 by two U.S. chemists, R. Schoenheimer and D. Rittenberg. That technique provided one of the single most important tools for investigating the complex chemical changes that occur in life processes. At about the same time, other workers localized the sites of metabolic reactions by ingenious technical advances in the studies of organs, tissue slices, cell mixtures, individual cells, and, finally, individual cell constituents, such as nuclei, mitochondria, ribosomes, lysosomes, and membranes.

In 1869 a substance was isolated from the nuclei of pus cells and was called nucleic acid, which later proved to be deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), but it was not until 1944 that the significance of DNA as genetic material was revealed, when bacterial DNA was shown to change the genetic matter of other bacterial cells. Within a decade of that discovery, the double helix structure of DNA was proposed by Watson and Crick, providing a firm basis for understanding how DNA is involved in cell division and in maintaining genetic characteristics.

Advances have continued since that time, with such landmark events as the first chemical synthesis of a protein, the detailed mapping of the arrangement of atoms in some enzymes, and the elucidation of intricate mechanisms of metabolic regulation, including the molecular action of hormones.

A description of life at the molecular level includes a description of all the complexly interrelated chemical changes that occur within the celli.e., the processes known as intermediary metabolism. The processes of growth, reproduction, and heredity, also subjects of the biochemists curiosity, are intimately related to intermediary metabolism and cannot be understood independently of it. The properties and capacities exhibited by a complex multicellular organism can be reduced to the properties of the individual cells of that organism, and the behaviour of each individual cell can be understood in terms of its chemical structure and the chemical changes occurring within that cell.

Every living cell contains, in addition to water and salts or minerals, a large number of organic compounds, substances composed of carbon combined with varying amounts of hydrogen and usually also of oxygen. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur are likewise common constituents. In general, the bulk of the organic matter of a cell may be classified as (1) protein, (2) carbohydrate, and (3) fat, or lipid. Nucleic acids and various other organic derivatives are also important constituents. Each class contains a great diversity of individual compounds. Many substances that cannot be classified in any of the above categories also occur, though usually not in large amounts.

Proteins are fundamental to life, not only as structural elements (e.g., collagen) and to provide defense (as antibodies) against invading destructive forces but also because the essential biocatalysts are proteins. The chemistry of proteins is based on the researches of the German chemist Emil Fischer, whose work from 1882 demonstrated that proteins are very large molecules, or polymers, built up of about 24 amino acids. Proteins may vary in size from smallinsulin with a molecular weight of 5,700 (based on the weight of a hydrogen atom as 1)to very largemolecules with molecular weights of more than 1,000,000. The first complete amino acid sequence was determined for the insulin molecule in the 1950s. By 1963 the chain of amino acids in the protein enzyme ribonuclease (molecular weight 12,700) had also been determined, aided by the powerful physical techniques of X-ray-diffraction analysis. In the 1960s, Nobel Prize winners J.C. Kendrew and M.F. Perutz, utilizing X-ray studies, constructed detailed atomic models of the proteins hemoglobin and myoglobin (the respiratory pigment in muscle), which were later confirmed by sophisticated chemical studies. The abiding interest of biochemists in the structure of proteins rests on the fact that the arrangement of chemical groups in space yields important clues regarding the biological activity of molecules.

Carbohydrates include such substances as sugars, starch, and cellulose. The second quarter of the 20th century witnessed a striking advance in the knowledge of how living cells handle small molecules, including carbohydrates. The metabolism of carbohydrates became clarified during this period, and elaborate pathways of carbohydrate breakdown and subsequent storage and utilization were gradually outlined in terms of cycles (e.g., the EmbdenMeyerhof glycolytic cycle and the Krebs cycle). The involvement of carbohydrates in respiration and muscle contraction was well worked out by the 1950s. Refinements of the schemes continue.

Fats, or lipids, constitute a heterogeneous group of organic chemicals that can be extracted from biological material by nonpolar solvents such as ethanol, ether, and benzene. The classic work concerning the formation of body fat from carbohydrates was accomplished during the early 1850s. Those studies, and later confirmatory evidence, have shown that the conversion of carbohydrate to fat occurs continuously in the body. The liver is the main site of fat metabolism. Fat absorption in the intestine, studied as early as the 1930s, still is under investigation by biochemists. The control of fat absorption is known to depend upon a combination action of secretions of the pancreas and bile salts. Abnormalities of fat metabolism, which result in disorders such as obesity and rare clinical conditions, are the subject of much biochemical research. Equally interesting to biochemists is the association between high levels of fat in the blood and the occurrence of arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries).

Nucleic acids are large, complex compounds of very high molecular weight present in the cells of all organisms and in viruses. They are of great importance in the synthesis of proteins and in the transmission of hereditary information from one generation to the next. Originally discovered as constituents of cell nuclei (hence their name), it was assumed for many years after their isolation in 1869 that they were found nowhere else. This assumption was not challenged seriously until the 1940s, when it was determined that two kinds of nucleic acid exist: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), in the nuclei of all cells and in some viruses; and ribonucleic acid (RNA), in the cytoplasm of all cells and in most viruses.

The profound biological significance of nucleic acids came gradually to light during the 1940s and 1950s. Attention turned to the mechanism by which protein synthesis and genetic transmission was controlled by nucleic acids (see below Genes). During the 1960s, experiments were aimed at refinements of the genetic code. Promising attempts were made during the late 1960s and early 1970s to accomplish duplication of the molecules of nucleic acids outside the celli.e., in the laboratory. By the mid-1980s genetic engineering techniques had accomplished, among other things, in vitro fertilization and the recombination of DNA (so-called gene splicing).

Biochemists have long been interested in the chemical composition of the food of animals. All animals require organic material in their diet, in addition to water and minerals. This organic matter must be sufficient in quantity to satisfy the caloric, or energy, requirements of the animals. Within certain limits, carbohydrate, fat, and protein may be used interchangeably for this purpose. In addition, however, animals have nutritional requirements for specific organic compounds. Certain essential fatty acids, about ten different amino acids (the so-called essential amino acids), and vitamins are required by many higher animals. The nutritional requirements of various species are similar but not necessarily identical; thus man and the guinea pig require vitamin C, or ascorbic acid, whereas the rat does not.

That plants differ from animals in requiring no preformed organic material was appreciated soon after the plant studies of the late 1700s. The ability of green plants to make all their cellular material from simple substancescarbon dioxide, water, salts, and a source of nitrogen such as ammonia or nitratewas termed photosynthesis. As the name implies, light is required as an energy source, and it is generally furnished by sunlight. The process itself is primarily concerned with the manufacture of carbohydrate, from which fat can be made by animals that eat plant carbohydrates. Protein can also be formed from carbohydrate, provided ammonia is furnished.

In spite of the large apparent differences in nutritional requirements of plants and animals, the patterns of chemical change within the cell are the same. The plant manufactures all the materials it needs, but these materials are essentially similar to those that the animal cell uses and are often handled in the same way once they are formed. Plants could not furnish animals with their nutritional requirements if the cellular constituents in the two forms were not basically similar.

The organic food of animals, including man, consists in part of large molecules. In the digestive tracts of higher animals, these molecules are hydrolyzed, or broken down, to their component building blocks. Proteins are converted to mixtures of amino acids, and polysaccharides are converted to monosaccharides. In general, all living forms use the same small molecules, but many of the large complex molecules are different in each species. An animal, therefore, cannot use the protein of a plant or of another animal directly but must first break it down to amino acids and then recombine the amino acids into its own characteristic proteins. The hydrolysis of food material is necessary also to convert solid material into soluble substances suitable for absorption. The liquefaction of stomach contents aroused the early interest of observers, long before the birth of modern chemistry, and the hydrolytic enzymes secreted into the digestive tract were among the first enzymes to be studied in detail. Pepsin and trypsin, the proteolytic enzymes of gastric and pancreatic juice, respectively, continue to be intensively investigated.

The products of enzymatic action on the food of an animal are absorbed through the walls of the intestines and distributed to the body by blood and lymph. In organisms without digestive tracts, substances must also be absorbed in some way from the environment. In some instances simple diffusion appears to be sufficient to explain the transfer of a substance across a cell membrane. In other cases, however (e.g., in the case of the transfer of glucose from the lumen of the intestine to the blood), transfer occurs against a concentration gradient. That is, the glucose may move from a place of lower concentration to a place of higher concentration.

In the case of the secretion of hydrochloric acid into gastric juice, it has been shown that active secretion is dependent on an adequate oxygen supply (i.e., on the respiratory metabolism of the tissue), and the same holds for absorption of salts by plant roots. The energy released during the tissue oxidation must be harnessed in some way to provide the energy necessary for the absorption or secretion. This harnessing is achieved by a special chemical coupling system. The elucidation of the nature of such coupling systems has been an objective of the biochemist.

One of the animal tissues that has always excited special curiosity is blood. Blood has been investigated intensively from the early days of biochemistry, and its chemical composition is known with greater accuracy and in more detail than that of any other tissue in the body. The physician takes blood samples to determine such things as the sugar content, the urea content, or the inorganic-ion composition of the blood, since these show characteristic changes in disease.

The blood pigment hemoglobin has been intensively studied. Hemoglobin is confined within the blood corpuscles and carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. It combines with oxygen in the lungs, where the oxygen concentration is high, and releases the oxygen in the tissues, where the oxygen concentration is low. The hemoglobins of higher animals are related but not identical. In invertebrates, other pigments may take the place and function of hemoglobin. The comparative study of these compounds constitutes a fascinating chapter in biochemical investigation.

The proteins of blood plasma also have been extensively investigated. The gamma-globulin fraction of the plasma proteins contains the antibodies of the blood and is of practical value as an immunizing agent. An animal develops resistance to disease largely by antibody production. Antibodies are proteins with the ability to combine with an antigen (i.e., an agent that induces their formation). When this agent is a component of a disease-causing bacterium, the antibody can protect an organism from infection by that bacterium. The chemical study of antigens and antibodies and their interrelationship is known as immunochemistry.

The cell is the site of a constant, complex, and orderly set of chemical changes collectively called metabolism. Metabolism is associated with a release of heat. The heat released is the same as that obtained if the same chemical change is brought about outside the living organism. This confirms the fact that the laws of thermodynamics apply to living systems just as they apply to the inanimate world. The pattern of chemical change in a living cell, however, is distinctive and different from anything encountered in nonliving systems. This difference does not mean that any chemical laws are invalidated. It instead reflects the extraordinary complexity of the interrelations of cellular reactions.

Hormones, which may be regarded as regulators of metabolism, are investigated at three levels, to determine (1) their physiological effects, (2) their chemical structure, and (3) the chemical mechanisms whereby they operate. The study of the physiological effects of hormones is properly regarded as the province of the physiologist. Such investigations obviously had to precede the more analytical chemical studies. The chemical structures of thyroxine and adrenaline are known. The chemistry of the sex and adrenal hormones, which are steroids, has also been thoroughly investigated. The hormones of the pancreasinsulin and glucagonand the hormones of the hypophysis (pituitary gland) are peptides (i.e., compounds composed of chains of amino acids). The structures of most of these hormones has been determined. The chemical structures of the plant hormones, auxin and gibberellic acid, which act as growth-controlling agents in plants, are also known.

The first and second phases of the hormone problem thus have been well, though not completely, explored, but the third phase is still in its infancy. It seems likely that different hormones exert their effects in different ways. Some may act by affecting the permeability of membranes; others appear to control the synthesis of certain enzymes. Evidently some hormones also control the activity of certain genes.

Genetic studies have shown that the hereditary characteristics of a species are maintained and transmitted by the self-duplicating units known as genes, which are composed of nucleic acids and located in the chromosomes of the nucleus. One of the most fascinating chapters in the history of the biological sciences contains the story of the elucidation, in the mid-20th century, of the chemical structure of the genes, their mode of self-duplication, and the manner in which the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of the nucleus causes the synthesis of ribonucleic acid (RNA), which, among its other activites, causes the synthesis of protein. Thus, the capacity of a protein to behave as an enzyme is determined by the chemical constitution of the gene (DNA) that directs the synthesis of the protein. The relationship of genes to enzymes has been demonstrated in several ways. The first successful experiments, devised by the Nobel Prize winners George W. Beadle and Edward L. Tatum, involved the bread mold Neurospora crassa; the two men were able to collect a variety of strains that differed from the parent strain in nutritional requirements. Such strains had undergone a mutation (change) in the genetic makeup of the parent strain. The mutant strains required a particular amino acid not required for growth by the parent strain. It was then shown that such a mutant had lost an enzyme essential for the synthesis of the amino acid in question. The subsequent development of techniques for the isolation of mutants with specific nutritional requirements led to a special procedure for studying intermediary metabolism.

The exploration of space beginning in the mid-20th century intensified speculation about the possibility of life on other planets. At the same time, man was beginning to understand some of the intimate chemical mechanisms used for the transmission of hereditary characteristics. It was possible, by studying protein structure in different species, to see how the amino acid sequences of functional proteins (e.g., hemoglobin and cytochrome) have been altered during phylogeny (the development of species). It was natural, therefore, that biochemists should look upon the problem of the origin of life as a practical one. The synthesis of a living cell from inanimate material was not regarded as an impossible task for the future.

An early objective in biochemistry was to provide analytical methods for the determination of various blood constituents because it was felt that abnormal levels might indicate the presence of metabolic diseases. The clinical chemistry laboratory now has become a major investigative arm of the physician in the diagnosis and treatment of disease and is an indispensable unit of every hospital. Some of the older analytical methods directed toward diagnosis of common diseases are still the most commonly usedfor example, tests for determining the levels of blood glucose, in diabetes; urea, in kidney disease; uric acid, in gout; and bilirubin, in liver and gallbladder disease. With development of the knowledge of enzymes, determination of certain enzymes in blood plasma has assumed diagnostic value, such as alkaline phosphatase, in bone and liver disease; acid phosphatase, in prostatic cancer; amylase, in pancreatitis; and lactate dehydrogenase and transaminase, in cardiac infarct. Electrophoresis of plasma proteins is commonly employed to aid in the diagnosis of various liver diseases and forms of cancer. Both electrophoresis and ultracentrifugation of serum constituents (lipoproteins) are used increasingly in the diagnosis and examination of therapy of atherosclerosis and heart disease. Many specialized and sophisticated methods have been introduced, and machines have been developed for the simultaneous automated analysis of many different blood constituents in order to cope with increasing medical needs.

Analytical biochemical methods have also been applied in the food industry to develop crops superior in nutritive value and capable of retaining nutrients during the processing and preservation of food. Research in this area is directed particularly to preserving vitamins as well as colour and taste, all of which may suffer loss if oxidative enzymes remain in the preserved food. Tests for enzymes are used for monitoring various stages in food processing.

Biochemical techniques have been fundamental in the development of new drugs. The testing of potentially useful drugs includes studies on experimental animals and man to observe the desired effects and also to detect possible toxic manifestations; such studies depend heavily on many of the clinical biochemistry techniques already described. Although many of the commonly used drugs have been developed on a rather empirical (trial-and-error) basis, an increasing number of therapeutic agents have been designed specifically as enzyme inhibitors to interfere with the metabolism of a host or invasive agent. Biochemical advances in the knowledge of the action of natural hormones and antibiotics promise to aid further in the development of specific pharmaceuticals.

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biochemistry | Definition, History, Examples, Importance ...

The University of Tennessee Department of Biochemistry and Cellular and Molecular Biology (BCMB) is home toover 400 undergraduate majors. Housed in the Ken and Blaire Mossman (1311 Cumberland Ave.) and Hesler Biology (1406 Circle Dr.)Buildings, our research teams of faculty, undergrads, graduate students, and postdoctoral fellows are working on topics ranging from molecular structure to organismal levels.

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Applications are now being solicited for a ten week, NSF-funded summer REU program sponsored by the BCMB Department. The program will provide students with the opportunity to engage in multi-disciplinary research projects employing molecular, genetic, genomic, and systems level approaches to investigate the strategies through which model organisms across the biological kingdom sense and adapt to a changing environment. The program is tailored to Deaf students within the biological, chemical, and physical sciences with an interest in careers in STEM. In addition, Hearing students with an interest in scientific research as well as training in American Sign Language are encouraged to apply to the program. Further information and an online application are available .

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Biochemistry & Cellular and Molecular Biology

biological chemistry, the science dealing with the composition of organisms; the structure, properties, and localization of compounds observed in organisms; the pathways and laws governing the formation of these compounds; and the sequence and mechanisms of transformations and their biological and physiological roles. Biochemistry is subdivided into the biochemistry of microorganisms, of plants, of animals, and of man. This subdivision is arbitrary, since there is much in common in the composition of the various objects of study and in the biochemical processes taking place in them. For this reason, the research carried out on microorganisms complements and enriches research on plant or animal tissues and cells. Although the different branches of biochemical research are intimately connected, it is accepted practice to divide biochemistry into static biochemistry, concerned predominantly with the analysis of the composition of organisms; dynamic biochemistry, concerned with the transformation of substances; and functional biochemistry, which elucidates the chemical processes that underlie various manifestations of the life functions. The last branch of research is sometimes referred to by the special name physiological chemistry.

The totality of chemical reactions taking place in an organism, from the acquisition of materials which enter the organism from without (assimilation) and their breakdown (dissimilation) to the formation of the end products that are secreted, constitutes the essence and content of metabolismthe main and constant criterion of all living things. Understandably, the study of metabolism in all its details is one of the major tasks of biochemistry. Biochemical research embraces a very wide range of questions: there is no branch of theoretical or applied biology, chemistry, or medicine which is not linked with it. Thus, contemporary biochemistry unites many related scientific disciplines that became independent in the middle of the 20th century.

The accumulation of biochemical information and establishment of biochemistry in the 16th to 19th centuries. Biochemistry took shape as an independent science at the end of the 19th century; however, its origins reach far back into the past. From the first half of the 16th century until the second half of the 17th century, iatrochemists (chemistphysicians) made their contribution to the development of chemistry and medicine: the German physician and natural scientist P. Paracelsus, the Dutch scholars J. B. van Heimont and F. Sylvius, and others studied the digestive juices, bile, and the processes of fermentation. Sylvius, a famous physician, attributed particularly great importance to the correct balance of acids and alkalies in the human organism; he believed that many if not all diseases were caused by a disturbance of this balance. Many of the positions espoused by the iatrochemists were naive and entirely mistaken; however, it must not be forgotten that chemistry did not yet exist at that time. The most generally accepted theory governing science at that time was the so-called phlogiston theory. Nevertheless, equilibrium experiments were carried out on man with exact records of body mass and secretion by the Italian scientist S. Santorio at the beginning of the 17th century. These experiments led to the description of perspiratio insensibilisthe loss of mass owing to insensible perspiration.

The great discoveries in the areas of physics and chemistry in the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries (the discovery of many simple substances and compounds, the formulation of the gas laws, the discovery of the laws of conservation of matter and energy) laid the scientific foundation of general chemistry. After the discovery of oxygen as a component of air, the Dutch botanist J. Ingenhousz was able to describe the continual formation of CO2 by plants and the release of oxygen by the green parts of the plant stimulated by sunlight. Ingenhousz experiments marked the beginning of the study of plant respiration and the processes of photosynthesis, which are still being explored in detail.

At the end of the first quarter of the 19th century, only a very small number of organic substances were known. In the textbook of the German chemist L. Gmelin published in 1822, only 80 organic compounds are named. At that time the tasks and possibilities of organic chemistry were still unclear. The Swedish scientist J. Berzelius thought that organic bodies were divided into two clearly differentiated classesplants and animals; he also thought that the essence of living matter derived from something other than its inorganic elements. This something else, which he called life force, lies entirely beyond the realm of inorganic elements. Berzelius expressed doubt that man will ever be able to produce organic substances artificially and confirm such analysis by synthesis (1827). The untenability of these views, which were typical of vitalism, was demonstrated very shortly. As early as 1828, the German chemist F. Whler, a student of Berzelius, produced urea by synthetic means. Urea had been described in the 18th century by the French scientist H. Rouelle as one of the component parts of urine in mammals. Soon there followed the synthesis of other natural organic compounds and of artificial compounds unknown in nature. Thus, the wall separating organic from inorganic compounds was broken down.

Beginning with the second half of the 19th century, organic chemistry increasingly became synthetic chemistry, within which efforts were directed at the preparation of new carbon compounds, especially those having industrial use. The study of the composition of plant and animal specimens was not yet included. Knowledge in this area was obtained by chance as a by-product of work by chemists, botanists, plant and animal physiologists, pathologists, and physicians whose interests included chemical research. Thus, in 1814, the Russian chemist K. S. Kirkhgof described the conversion of starch into sugar under the effect of extract of sprouted barley seedsthe action of amylase. By the middle of the 19th century, other enzymes were described: salivary amylase, which breaks down polysaccharides; and pepsin in gastric juice and trypsin in the pancreatic fluid, which break down protein. Berzelius introduced the concept of catalysts into chemistry and included all enzymes known at that time in this category. In 1835 the French chemist M. Chevreul described creatine in muscle tissue; shortly thereafter, the structurally related creatinine was discovered in urine. The German chemist J. von Liebig established the presence of lactic acid in the skeletal muscles and the accumulation of this substance during work. In 1839 he established that food was composed of protein, fats, and carbohydrates, which are the main components of animal and plant organisms. In the mid-19th century the structure of fat was established and its synthesis was carried out by the French chemist P. Berthelot; the synthesis of carbohydrates was accomplished by the Russian scientist A. M. Butlerov, who also proposed a theory of the structure of organic compounds that retains its importance even today. The systematic study of proteins was begun by the Dutch physician and chemist G. J. Mulder in the 1830s and has continued intensively ever since. At the same time, in connection with the description of yeast cells (C. Cagniard de La Tour in France and T. Schwann in Germany, 183638), scientists began actively studying the process of the metabolism of sugar and formation of alcohol, which had long since attracted attention. Among those who studied fermentation were J. von Liebig and the French scientist L. Pasteur. Pasteur came to the conclusion that fermentation was a biological process that required the participation of living yeast cells. Liebig, on the other hand, regarded the metabolism of sugar as a complicated chemical reaction. This dispute was resolved when the Russian chemist M. M. Manassein (1871) and, with even more clarity, the German scientist E. Buchner (1897), proved the ability of the fluid extracted from yeast cells to induce alcoholic fermentation. Thus, the correctness of the chemical theory of enzyme action formulated by Liebig in 1870 was confirmed; the basic principles of this theory have retained their importance to this day.

A significant quantity of information accumulated regarding the chemical composition of plant and animal organisms and the chemical reactions taking place in them; at the same time, attempts were made to systematize and organize this information in treatises. The earliest of these were the textbooks of J. Simon (1842) and of Liebig (1847), published in Germany; and the textbook of physiological chemistry by A. I. Khodnev, issued in Russia (1847).

The origin and development of contemporary trends in biochemistry. At the end of the 19th century and during the 20th century, the development of biochemistry took on a markedly specialized character which reflects the problems and the objects of study. Plant biochemistry developed predominantly in subdepartments of botany and of plant physiology. The biochemistry of microorganisms is also closely related to plant biochemistry. Biochemists of all countries have studied proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and vitamins (the component parts of plants, animals, and microorganisms) in the most varied specimens.Glycosides, tanning agents, essential oils, alkaloids, antibiotics, and other so-called secondary products can be regarded as characteristic of plants and microorganisms. Among the above mentioned compounds, many glycosides were synthesized by enzymes by the French chemist E. Bourquelot and his coworkers (191118). The classic work of the German chemist R. Willstatter (191015) played an exceptional role in deciphering the structure of the anthocyaninsthe glycosides that make up the pigments of flowers and fruits. The German chemist A. Hofmann (18901900) studied the group of alkaloids (nitrogenous heterocyclic substances of fundamental character). Later, other outstanding researchers studied the alkaloids (R. Willsttter, the Russian chemists A. P. Orekhov and A. A. Shmuk, and many others). Leading chemists and biochemistsPerkin, Jr. (Great Britain), H. Euler (Sweden), and othersalso successfully studied the essential oils and the terpenes.

An outstanding role in the development of plant biochemistry in Russia (at the end of the 19th century and during the first half of the 20th century) was played by Professor A. S. Famintsyn of the University of St. Petersburg and his students D. I. Ivanovskii (who discovered viruses) and I. P. Borodin (who studied the oxidation processes in plant organisms and their relation to protein transformation).

The work of S. P. Kostychev (professor at the University of St. Petersburglater, Leningrad State University) on anaerobic carbohydrate metabolism and plant respiration enriched chemical physiology by the discovery of new intermediates in fermentation and by the formulation of original views on the nature of oxidation processes, protein metabolism, and nitrogen fixation by plants. M. S. Tsvet, professor at the University of Warsaw, made a significant contribution with his column chromatography method, which is still used today. The Moscow school of physiologists and plant biochemists was represented by K. A. Timiriazev, who studied photosynthesis and the chemistry of chlorophyll. His studentsV. I. Palladin, who worked on biological oxidation; D. P. Prianishnikov, who studied nitrogen metabolism in plants; V. S. Butkevich, who enriched theoretical biochemistry with his research on protein and protein metabolism in plants; and A. R. Kizel, who studied arginine and urea metabolism in plants and structural elements in cell protoplasmwere the founders of the great schools and original directions in contemporary general and evolutionary biochemistry, and also of physiology and plant biochemistry, which developed fruitfully in the last 25 years of the 20th century. In the 20th century, researchers in the biochemistry of microorganisms and plants solved many common problems involving natural compounds (including macromolecules), their structures and paths of formation and breakdown, and the properties of enzymes participating in these processes. It should be noted that microorganisms gradually became the favorite specimens for various enzymological studies and for the solution of problems in biochemical genetics.

All this research created a firm foundation for the solution of many specific problems, including industrial problems. Among the latter were the production of new antibiotics, the development of methods for purifying them, and the search for conditions favorable to the microbiological synthesis not only of antibiotics but also of other biologically active compoundsvitamins, critical amino acids, nucleotides, and so on.

TECHNICAL AND INDUSTRIAL BIOCHEMISTRY. the requirements of the national economyproblems of profitable production of raw materials and their practical and rational storage, correct processing, and effective use; problems of raising the yield of cultivated plants; questions of viticulture and the technology of wine-making; and the requirements of the food industryhave led to the creation of a new branch of biochemistry: technical and industrial biochemistry. In the USSR, this area is represented most strongly by the A. N. Bakh Institute of Biochemistry (A. I. Oparin, V. L. Kretovich, L. V. Metlitskii, R. M. Feniksova, and others) and the Institute of Plant Physiology of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (A. L. Kursanov and his coworkers and students). I. P. Ivanov (All-Union Institute of Plant-Growing), V. L. Kretovich, M. I. Kniaginichev, their coworkers, and many others have greatly contributed to the study of the biochemistry of grain crops. The work carried out at the A. N. Bakh Institute on the Biochemistry of Catechins has played an important role in the development of production of tea and tanning agents.

ANIMAL AND HUMAN BIOCHEMISTRY (MEDICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY). The development of animal and human biochemistry has been greatly furthered by the numerous groups of physiologists, chemists, pathologists, and medical doctors working in different countries. In France, in the laboratory of the physiologist C. Bernard, glycogen was discovered in the liver of mammals (1857) and the pathways of its formation and the mechanisms regulating its breakdown were studied; also in France, L. Corvisart (1856) discovered the enzyme trypsin in pancreatic juice. In Germany, F. Hoppe-Seyler, A. Kossel, E. Fischer, E. Ab-derhalden, O. Hammarsten, and others made detailed studies of simple and complex proteins, their structure and properties, and the substances formed by artificial degradation upon heating with acids and bases or by the action of enzymes. In England, F. Hopkins, the founder of the Cambridge school of biochemists, investigated the amino acid composition of proteins, discovered tryptophan and glutathione, and studied the role of amino acids and vitamins in nutrition.

Russian scientists working in the departments of higher academic institutions and in specialized institutes made an important contribution to the development of biochemistry at the turn of the 20th century. In the Military Medical Academy, A. la. Danilevskii and his coworkers studied problems of protein chemistry, methods for isolating and purifying enzymes, mechanisms of enzyme action, and the conditions for reversibility of enzyme reactions. At the Institute for Experimental Medicine, M. V. Nentskii carried out research on the chemistry of porphyrins and the biosynthesis of urea, and also on bacterial enzymes which are responsible for the breakdown of amino acids. The collaboration of the laboratories of A. la. Danilevskii and M. V. Nentskii with the laboratory of I. P. Pavlov in research on digestion and the formation of urea in the liver was especially fruitful. At Moscow University, V. S. Gulevich conducted detailed and successful research into extractive (nonprotein) substances present in muscle and discovered many new nitrogencontaining compounds of unique structure (carnosine, carnitine, and others). The detailed study of the various enzyme reactions which take place in the parenchymatous organsmainly in the liverand which govern the normal course of transport processes has been and remains the object of much research. In the second half of the 19th century and during the 20th century, much attention has been devoted to the biochemical study of excitable tissue, predominantly of the brain and muscle. In the USSR, A. V. Palladin, G. E. Vladimirov, E. M. Kreps, and their students and coworkers have worked on these problems. By the middle of the 20th century, neurochemistry had become one of the independent branches of biochemistry. The biochemistry of the blood was studied comprehensively. The respiratory function of the blood (that is, the binding and release of carbon dioxide and oxygen by the blood) was studied in the laboratory of C. Ludwig in Vienna in the mid-19th century and later in greater detail in various countries. The data obtained led to the analysis of the structure and properties of hemoglobin in its normal and pathological states, the detailed study of the reaction between hemoglobin and oxygen, and the elucidation of the laws governing the acidbase balance.

Biochemistry achieved great success in the study of vitamins, hormones, and mineral substances, and especially of trace elements, their distribution in various organisms, their physiological roles, the mechanisms of their action, and their regulating influence on enzyme reactions and transport processes. Of great importance is the question of the relation between structure and function, which characterizes the problems of biochemical pharmacology in dealing with medicinal preparations; and the study of the primary mechanism of their action, which involves intervention in the enzyme reactions that form the basis of the metabolic processes. In the mid-20th century, biochemical research carried out in clinics and devoted to the study of the biochemical features of the organism and the chemical makeup of blood, urine, and other fluids and tissues of the patient acquired an independent status. This area, which received extensive development, is the basis of clinical biochemistry.

VITAMINOLOGY. In 1880, in G. A. Bunges laboratory, a young Russian physician named N. I. Lunin first described the supplementary nutrient factors found in milk. Similar observations were made by the Dutch physician C. Eijkman, who in 1896 described the presence of a vital factor in rice bran. In 1912, the Polish researcher C. Funk isolated the active component in crystalline form and called it a vitamin. Work in this area was greatly expanded, and gradually many other vitamins were discovered. Today, vitaminology is one of the most important branches of biochemistry and of nutrition.

BIOCHEMISTRY OF HORMONES. Research on the analysis of the chemical structure of the products of glands of internal secretion (hormones), the pathways of their formation in the organism, their modes of action, and the possibility of synthesizing them in the laboratory constitutes one of the most important areas of biochemical research. The biochemistry of steroid hormones is part of the general problem of the biochemistry of sterines. The successes achieved in this area are largely a result of the use of initial and intermediate compounds labeled with carbon (14C). A close relationship has been established between a wide range of research on protein substances and the specialized study of the structure and function of hormones of proteinlike character. The study of the hormone activity of a given preparation is impossible without a thorough analysis of the biochemical mechanisms governing its activity. Thus, data concerning the chemistry and biochemistry of hormones contribute equally to our knowledge of endocrinology and of biochemistry.

ENZYMOLOGY. The study of enzymes is an entirely independent area of biochemistry. In this field, the problem of the structure of enzymatic proteins is closely interwoven with physicochemical problems of chemical kinetics and catalysis. In the second half of the 20th century, much new information has been added to our conception of enzyme structure and of their presence in the natural state in the form of complexes. The analysis of enzyme structure in conjunction with the activity exhibited by enzymes under various conditions has led to the understanding of the role of individual amino acids (mainly cysteine, lysine, histidine, tyrosine, and serine) in the formation of the active sites of enzymes. The structure of many coenzymes has been determined along with their significance for enzyme activity and also the relation between coenzymes and vitamins. R. Willsttter, L. Michaelis, G. Embden, and O. Meyerhof (Germany), J. Sumner and J. Northrop (Usa), H. Euler (Sweden), and A. N. Bakh (USSR) all made important contributions to the development of enzymology during the first half of the 20th century. Those who actively continued their research, set up schools, and opened up new areas include O. Warburg (West Berlin) and F. Lynen (Federal Republic of Germany), R. Peters and H. Krebs (Great Britain), H. Theorell (Sweden), F. Lipmann and D. Koshland (USA), F. Sorm (Czechoslovakia), F. Straub (Hungary), and T. Baranowski and J. Heller (Poland). In the USSR, the field of research is represented by V. A. Engelgardt and M. N. Liubimova, who established the enzyme activity of muscle protein and, in particular, the adenosine triphosphate activity of myosin and the process of oxidative phosphorylation; A. E. Braunshtein, who, in collaboration with M. G. Kritsman, discovered the process of the transfer of an amino group; A. I. Oparin and A. L. Kursanov, who studied the role of cell structure in the manifestation of enzyme activity; and S. R. Mardashev, who successfully studied the decarboxylation of amino acids. Research on large complexes of enzymes is being conducted in the laboratories of L. Reed (USA), M. Koike (Japan), D. Sanadi (USA), F. Lynen (West Germany), S. E. Severin (USSR), and others. The Soviet scientist V. A. Belitser greatly furthered our understanding of the efficiency of the role played by respirationdiscovered by V. A. Engelgardtin the formation of energyrich compounds; G. E. Vladimirov specified the quantity of energy (10 calories, or 42 joules) liberated by the hydrolysis of ATP. Studies in this area were isolated at first, but in the 1950s and later, work was greatly expanded, largely owing to research by D. Green, B. Chance, A. Lehninger, and E. Racker (USA), and E. Slater (Netherlands). In the USSR, this problem has been studied in the biochemistry sub-departments at Moscow State University and Leningrad State University, and also in independent laboratories (S. A. Neifakh, V. P. Skulachev, and others). In addition, contemporary research has demonstrated the marked influence of the salt content of the surroundings and of individual ions on enzymatic processes and the important role of trace elements in the realization of enzyme activity.

EVOLUTIONARY AND COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY. Studies of the chemistry of animals, plants, and microorganisms have shown that, in spite of the universality of basic biochemical structures and processes in all living organisms, there are specific differences determined by the level of ontogenetic and phylogenetic development of the specimen under examination. The accumulation of facts has provided the foundation for comparative biochemistry, whose object is to find the laws governing the biochemical evolution of organisms. In this connection, the problem of the origin of life on earth has great theoretical importance. Several important hypotheses of A. I. Oparins theory on the origin of life have received experimental confirmation in work done at the Bakh Institute, in the Subdepartment of Plant Biochemistry at Moscow State University, and in many foreign laboratories (for example, J. Oro and S. W. Fox in the USA).

HISTOCHEMISTRY AND CYTOCHEMISTRY. With the development of the techniques of morphological research, and especially with the introduction of the electron microscopewhich revealed many formerly unknown structures in the cell nucleus and protoplasminto laboratory work, new tasks presented themselves to biochemistry. On the borderline between morphological and biochemical research new areas of study have grown up. These include histochemistry and cytochemistry, which study the localization and transformation of substances in cells and tissues using biochemical and morphological methods.

BIOORGANIC CHEMISTRY. the detailed investigation of the structure of biopolymerssimple and complex proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides, and lipidsand the analysis of the effects of biologically active small molecular natural compounds (coenzymes, nucleotides, vitamins, and so on) led to the necessity of studying the relationship between the structure of a substance and its biological function. The formulation of this problem brought about a proliferation of research carried out on the border between biological and organic chemistry. This research area received the name of bioorganic chemistry.

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY. the development of methods for separating subcellular structures (ultracentrifugation) and for obtaining separate fractions containing the cell nuclei, mitochondria, ribosomes, and so on made possible the detailed study of the composition and biological functions of the separated components. The application of the methods of electrophoresis in conjunction with chromatography made possible the detailed characterization of macro-molecular compounds. The parallel development of analytic determination permitted the analysis of very small quantitites of mate-erial. This advance was linked to the introduction of physical (mainly optical) methods of analysis into biology and biochemistry (fluorometry, spectrophotometry in various regions of the spectrum, mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance, electron paramagnetic resonance, and gas and liquid chromatography), with the use of radioactive isotopes; sensitive automatic analyzers of amino acids, peptides, and nucleotides; polarimetry; macromolecular electrophoresis; and other methods. These developments led to the appearance of yet another independent branch of biochemistry, closely related to biophysics and physical chemistry, called molecular biology.

MOLECULAR GENETICS. Molecular genetics, in spite of some of its specific objectives, can be considered a part of molecular biology. Thus, for example, the analysis of the mechanism governing the occurrence of many hereditary malfunctions in the metabolism and actions of an organism has made possible the clarification of the role of the cessation or modification of the biosynthesis of those protein substances which have enzymic, immunological, or other biological activity. In this connection, the study of disruptions in the metabolism of carbohydrates and amino acids (for example, phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan) and the formation of pathological forms of hemoglobin and other biological compounds are relevant.

The development of new research methods between 1950 and 1970 has produced great advances in biochemistry. Foremost is the elucidation of protein structure and the determination of the sequential arrangement of amino acids within proteins. The first sequential arrangement of amino acids in the proteinlike hormone insulin was worked out by the English biochemist F. Sanger; later, the structure of the enzyme ribonuclease was determined by C. Hirs, S. Moore, and W. Stein (USA), who devised the method of automatic analysis of amino acids which became standard in biochemical laboratories. The same enzyme, ribonuclease, obtained from various sources was studied by C. Anfinsen (USA), F. Egami (Japan), and others. F. Sorm, B. Keil, and their coworkers (Czechoslovakia), B. Hartley (Great Britain), and others established the sequential arrangement of amino acids in many proteolytic enzymes. A major achievement of the 1960s was the chemical synthesis of hormonesthe adrenocorticotropic hormone, a molecule containing 23 amino acids (the natural hormone has 39 amino acids), and insulin, a molecule made up of 51 amino acidsand of the enzyme ribonuclease (124 amino acids).

In the USSR, work on problems of structure and synthesis of biologically active substances is being pursued at the Institute for the Chemistry of Natural Compounds (director, M. M. Shemiakin), at the Institute of Biological and Medical Chemistry (director, V. N. Orekhovich), and at other institutes and university departments.

The English scientists M. Perutz and J. Kendrew and their coworkers used X-ray analysis with great success in the determination of the structure of myoglobin and hemoglobin. In 1956 and 1957 the entire structure of lysozyme was worked out by the English biochemist D. Phillips and others. Equally important successes were achieved in the analysis of complex proteins, nucleoproteins, nucleic acids, and nucleotides. The triumphal accomplishment of biochemistry, molecular biology, and genetics was the research which established the role of nucleic acids in the biosynthesis of proteins and the predetermining influence of nucleic acids on the structure and properties of proteins synthesized within cells. This work elucidated the biochemical basis of the transmission of traits by inheritance from one generation to another. It is also difficult to overestimate the importance of the research which determined the sequence of nucleotides in transfer RNA (ribonucleic acid) and the elaboration of methods for the organic synthesis of polynucleotides. The work of the following investigators has been especially fruitful in the aforementioned areas: J. Buchanan, E. Chargaff, J. Davidson, D. Davis, A. Kornberg, S. Ochoa, J. Watson, and M. Wilkins (USA); F. Crick and F. Sanger (Great Britain); F. Jacob and J. Monod (France); and A. N. Belozerskii, A. S. Spirin, V. A. Engelgardt, and A. A. Baev (USSR).

Scientific institutions, societies, and periodicals.. The questions addressed to biochemistry by related scientific disciplinesmedicine and all its branches, agriculture (plant-growing and livestockraising), the food industry, theoretical and applied biology, soil science, hydrobiology, and oceanologyare continually increasing in scope. Each special field of biochemistry, in the USSR and abroad, utilizes a network of specialized institutes and laboratories. In the USSR, scientific work in biochemistry is conducted in central scientific research institutes within the various systems: in the Academy of Sciences of the USSRthe A. N. Bakh Institute of Biochemistry, the Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry, the Institute of Plant Physiology, the Institute of Molecular Biology, the Institute of the Chemistry of Natural Compounds; in academies of the various republicsthe Institute of Biochemistry of the Ukrainian SSR, the Armenian SSR, the Uzbek SSR, and the Lithuanian SSR; in branch academiesthe Institute of Biological and Medical Chemistry of the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR, the Biochemistry Department of the Institute of Experimental Medicine of the Academy of Medicine of the USSR, the Institute of Experimental Endocrinology and Hormone Chemistry of the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR, and the Institute of Nutrition of the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR; and in the institutes of the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences and of many ministries (ministries of health, agriculture, food industry, and so on). Research in biochemistry is conducted in the bioorganic chemistry laboratory at Moscow State University and in many university subdepartments of biochemistry. Problems of biochemistry are studied in the central and branch institutes devoted to areas of botany, physiology, and pathology and in institutes of experimental and clinical medicine, the food industry, physical culture, and many other institutes. Most specialists in biochemistry, both in the USSR and abroad, are trained in universities, where the faculties of chemistry and biology contain specialized departments. Biochemists with a more limited background are trained in medical, technical, agricultural, and other institutions.

In the majority of countries, there are scientific biochemical societies united under the Federation of European Biochemical Societies and the International Union of Biochemistry. These organizations hold symposia and conferences, and also congressesyearly in the case of the Federation of European Biochemical Societies (the first took place in 1964), and once every three years in the case of the International Union of Biochemistry (the first was held in 1949; the congresses became especially popular and well attended beginning with the fifth, which was held in Moscow in 1961). In the USSR, the All-Union Biochemical Society, with numerous sections in the republics and cities, was organized in 1958. It has approximately 6,500 members. Actually, the number of biochemists in the USSR is much greater.

The quantity of periodical literature in which biochemical work is published is very great and continues to increase every year. Among the foreign and international journals, the best known are Journal of Biological Chemistry (Baltimore, 1905), Biochemistry (Washington, D.C., 1964), Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics (New York, 1942), Biochemical Journal (London, 1906), Phytochemistry (Oxford-New York, 1962), Molecular Biology (international journal published in England), Bulletin de la Socit de Chimie Biologique (Paris, 1914), Enzymologia (The Hague, 1936), Giornale di Biochimica (Rome, 1955), Acta Biologica et Medica Germanica (Leipzig, 1959), Hoppe Seylers Zeitschrift fr physiologische Chemie (Berlin, 1877), and Journal of Biochemistry (Tokyo, 1922). Popular yearbooks include Annual Review of Biochemistry (Stanford, 1932), Advances in Enzymology and Related Subjects of Biochemistry (New York, 1945), Advances in Protein Chemistry (New York, 1945), Advances in Enzyme Regulation (Oxford, 1963), and Advances in Molecular Biology. In the USSR, experimental work in biochemistry is published in the journals Biokhimiia (Moscow, 1936), Zhurnal evoliutsionnoi biokhimii i fiziologii (Moscow, 1965), Molekuliarnaia biologiia (Moscow, 1967), Voprosy meditsinskoi khimii (Moscow, 1955), Ukrainskii biokhimicheskii zhurnal (Kiev, 1926), Prikladnaia biokhimiia i mikrobiologiia (Moscow, 1965), Doklady AN SSSR (Moscow, 1933), Biulleten eksperimentalnoi biologii i meditsiny (Moscow, 1936), Izvestiia AN SSSR: Seriia biologii i meditsiny (Moscow, 1936), Izvestiia AN SSSR: Seriia khimicheskaia (Moscow, 1936), and Nauchnye doklady vysshei shkoly: Seriia biologicheskie nauki (Moscow, 1958).

General biochemical studies are published in the journal Uspekhi sovremennoi biologii (Moscow, 1932), the yearbook Uspekhi biologicheskoi khimii (vols. 18, 195067) published by the All-Union Biochemical Society, the journals Uspekhi khimii (Moscow, 1932) and Referativnyi zhurnal: Khimiia: Biologicheskaia khimiia (Moscow, 1955), and the journal of the Mendeleev All-Union Society. Publications of biochemical institutes appear frequently.

REFERENCESHandbooksMakeev, I. A., V. S. Gulevich, and L. M. Broude. Kurs biologicheskoi khimii. Moscow, 1947.Kretovich, V. L. Osnovy biokhimii rastenii, 4th ed. Moscow, 1964.Zbarskii, B. I., I.I. Ivanov, and S. R. Mardashev. Biologicheskaia khimia, 4th ed. Moscow, 1965.Ferdman, D. L. Biokhimiia, 3rd ed. Moscow, 1966.HistoryPrianishnikov, D. I zbr. soch., vol. 1. Moscow, 1951. Pages 519.Gulevich, V. S. Izbrannye trudy. Moscow, 1954. Pages 521.Parnas, Ia. O. Izbrannye trudy. Moscow, 1960. Pages 510.Tolkachevskaia, N. F. Razvitie biokhimii zhivotnykh. Moscow, 1963.Giua, M. Istoriia khimii. Moscow, 1966. (Translated from Italian.)Razvitie biologii SSSR. Moscow, 1967.Kretovich, V. L. Vvedenie enzimologiiu. Moscow, 1967.Biokhimiia rastenii. Moscow, 1968. (Translated from English.)Lieben, F. Geschichte der physiologischen Chemie. Leipzig-Vienna, 1935.MonographsEngelgardt, V. A. Nekotorye problemy sovremennoi biokhimii. Moscow, 1959.Engelgardt, V. A. Puti khimii poznanii iavlenii zhizni. Moscow, 1965.Severin, S. E. Biokhimicheskie osnovy zhizni. Moscow, 1961.Spirin, A. S. Informatsionnaia RNK i biosintez belkov. Moscow, 1962.Skulachev, V. P. Sootnoshenie okisleniia i fosforilirovania dykhatelnoi tsepi. Moscow, 1962.Fermenty. Edited by A. E. Braunshtein. Moscow, 1964.Vladimirov, G. E., and N. S. PanteleeVa. Funktsionalnaia biokhimiia. Leningrad, 1965.Ingram, V. Biosintez makromolekul. Moscow, 1966. (Translated from English.)Racker, E. Bioenergeticheskie mekhanizmy. Moscow, 1967. (Translated from English.)Spirin, A. S., and L. P. Gavrilova. Ribosoma. Moscow, 1968.

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Biochemistry | Article about biochemistry by The Free ...

Learn more about the Bachelor of Science in Biochemistry.

The Bachelor of Science degree in Biochemistry prepares students for excellence in graduate or medical school, and employment in the chemical, biotechnological, or pharmaceutical industries. Students learn a wide array of topics in Biology, Chemistry, Mathematics, and Physics. In upper division studies, Biochemistry majors learn to apply biochemical principles to real-life situations via problem-based approaches in their courses. Laboratory courses give students the tools they will need as biochemists to pursue research. Accomplished majors are encouraged to pursue independent research with a professor, and to present their work internally and at national meetings.

Undergraduate Contact Information:

Dr. Robert Sanders, ChairBiology-Life Sciences Building, Room 255215-204-8851

Dr. Dan Strongin, Chemistry ChairBeury Hall, Room 130215-204-7118

Dr. Angela Bricker, Faculty Advisor, BiologyBiology-Life Sciences Building, Room 248C215-204-8578abricker@temple.edu

Dr. Steven Fleming, Faculty Advisor (Last names A-C), ChemistryBeury Hall, Room 344215-204-0359sfleming@temple.edu

Dr. Roy Keyer, Faculty Advisor (Last names D-G), ChemistryBeury Hall, Room 440215-204-7286roy.keyer@temple.edu

Dr. Spiridoula Matsika, Faculty Advisor (Last names H-K), ChemistryBeury Hall, Room 242215-204-7703spiridoula.matsika@temple.edu

Dr. Andrew Price, Faculty Advisor (Last names L-M), ChemistryBeury Hall, Room 222C215-204-1048acprice@temple.edu

Dr. Vince Voelz, Faculty Advisor (Last names N-R), ChemistryBeury Hall, Room 240215-204-1973vincent.voelz@temple.edu

Dr. Vladi Wilent, Faculty Advisor (Last names S-T), ChemistryBeury Hall, Room 440215-204-7186vladi.wilent@temple.edu

Dr. Michael Zdilla, Faculty Advisor (Last names U-Z), ChemistrySERC, Room 656215-204-7886michael.zdilla@temple.eduNote: Due to restricted access to the 6th floor of SERC, please email Dr. Zdilla to set up an appointment.

Note: A grade of C or higher in CHEM1031 or its Honors alternate is required to take BIOL1111. Grades of C or higher in both CHEM1031 and CHEM1032 or their Honors alternates are required to take BIOL2112. Grades of C or higher in BIOL1111 and BIOL2112 or their Honors alternates are required to take upper-level Biology courses, and a C- or higher is required unless otherwise specified in all other courses for the major, including course prerequisites. Most research and Independent Study courses are not available for major credit, such as:

Courses listed under the major requirements for the degree will be included in the calculation of the major GPA. Courses that could not apply toward the major as an elective or required course would not be counted in the calculation of the major GPA. This would include BIOL1011, for example.

To graduate with Distinction in Major, students are required to achieve a 3.33 GPA or higher in all the Biology and Chemistry courses in their major.

All prospective majors should schedule an appointment with one of the departmental advisors (names of current Faculty Advisors are available in the About section) to plan a program of study. The recommended order of courses for the major is listed below; a different order is acceptable as long as the student adheres to prerequisite requirements.

Students are required to take two advanced biochemistry electives from the following list:

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Biochemistry, B.S. < Temple University

Contact the following faculty for more information about theBiochemistry BS.

Last Names AGSpiridoula Matsika is thefaculty advisor and professor in the Department of Chemistry.Phone: 215-204-7703Email: spiridoula.matsika@temple.edu

Last Names HNRobert Stanley is thefaculty advisor and professor in the Department of Chemistry.Phone: 215-204-2027Email: robert.stanley@temple.edu

Last Names OZMichael Zdilla is the faculty advisor and associate professor in the Department of Chemistry.Phone: 215-204-7886Email: michael.zdilla@temple.edu

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Biochemistry Major | Temple University

Hey! My name is Josh Strong, and I am a junior Biochemistry major on a Pre-Med track. I am originally from a small town outside of Scranton, PA, but moved to Atlanta, GA over the summer of my sophomore year at Temple. I work for Campus Recreations Intramurals department, and I am an RA in Morgan South. I am currently performing pharmacology research at Temples Lewis Katz School of Medicine through the Undergraduate Research Program. In my free time, I enjoy playing the drums, hanging with friends, and playing video games.

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BioChemistry (Pre-Med) | Honors Program

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With a major in Biochemistry, you gain a strong foundation in physical and biological science . Here, we customize your education to meet your career goals. You learn to use recombinant DNA technology and biotechnology, as well as protein and genetic engineering .

Courses to expect for this major include Biochemistry, Molecular Biology Laboratory, Physical Chemistry for Biologists, Biochemistry of the Cell, and Hypothesis Driven Undergraduate Research .

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Biochemistry offers a range of career paths with excellence preparation for sciences or in any industry of the professional health care fields, including medicine and veterinary sciences. Our graduates enjoy successful careers in a variety of fields:

The Finish in Four plans are designed to assist you in an eight semester plan guiding you to graduate within four years. You may use this as a guide to plan your undergraduate education, but you should adjust it to fit your personal goals.

BS - Biochemistry

The Biochemistry and Molecular Biology academic curriculum is built on a strong physical and biological science foundation with program flexibility. This minor allows you to expand your knowledge by taking additional chemistry and biochemistry classes and offers great experience for continuing on into professional health care fields including medicine and nutrition.

For minor requirements, please visit the Office of Registrar.

Scholarships are available for prospective freshmen, transfer students, current students and continuing students through the University, College of Arts and Sciences, and respective Departments.

When you complete the OSU admission application, you are automatically considered for the University Level scholarships.

Students are eligible forCollege Levelscholarships within the College of Arts and Sciences after completing 12 hours at OSU. Some exceptions may apply. See specific scholarships for criteria.

Some departments offerDepartmental Levelscholarships for students whose major is housed within that specific department.

Become an OK-LSAMP Scholar!OK-LSAMP is a consortium of Oklahoma colleges and universities working together to develop programs aimed at increasing the number of students from under-represented populations who receive degrees in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) disciplines. The OK-LSAMP scholarship program provides scholars with increased opportunities and connections, including undergraduate research experiences, graduate school preparation, international experiences, and internships/externships with companies in the STEM fields.

Chemistry107 Physical ScienceOklahoma State UniversityStillwater, Oklahoma 74078

chemistry@okstate.edu405-744-5920

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Biochemistry - Oklahoma State UniversityStillwater

TheBiochemistry conferencesdeals with the most recent research on structures, functions and interactions of biologicalmacromolecules, such asproteins,nucleic acids,carbohydratesandlipids, which provide the structure of cells and perform many of the functions associated with life. TheBiochemistry conferencesbring together researchers from multiple scientific disciplines, primarily from the field of medicine, nutrition, and agriculture to catalyse new discoveries and shape future research. In medicine, biochemists investigate the causes and cures of disease. In nutrition, they study how to maintain health and study the effects of nutritional deficiencies. In agriculture, biochemists investigate soil and fertilizers, and try to discover ways to improve crop cultivation, crop storage and pest control.

Conference SeriesConference Seriesthrough its Open Access Initiative is committed to make genuine and reliable contributions to the scientific community. Conference Series hosts over 700+ leading-edgepeer reviewed Open Access journalsand has organizing over 1000+Global Eventsall over the world.Biochemistry conferenceshost presentations from experts across the world in the field of Life Sciences. These Biochemistry conferences are of main interest to the scientists and professors working in the field of Bioinformatics, Proteomics, Metabolomics, Transcriptomics, Structural Biology, Next Generation Sequencing, Glycobiology, Lipid Science, Genetic and Protein Engineering, Glycomics, Amino Acids and Proteins and Computational System biology.

Bioinformaticshost presentations based on tools and techniques which are used to explore the Protein sequences.Proteomicsdeals with the conferences describing the structure, functions and interactions of proteins. The field ofMetabolomicsincludes conferences based on the study of small-molecule metabolites such as metabolic intermediates, hormones and other signaling molecules, and secondary metabolites.Transcriptomicsincludes presentation based on the study of complete set of RNA transcripts that are produced by the genome, under specific circumstances or in a specific cell using high-throughput methods, such as microarray analysis.Structural Biologyholds the conferences to discuss the molecular structure of biological macromolecules, especially proteins and nucleic acids, how they acquire the structures they have, and how alterations in their structures affect their function.Next Generation Sequencingapplies to genome sequencing, transcriptome profiling (RNA-Seq), DNA-protein interactions (ChIP-sequencing), and epigenome characterizationGlycobiologypresent the talks on the study of the structure, biosynthesis, and biology ofsaccharides that are widely distributed in nature.Lipid Scienceenhances the knowledge and understanding of the lipid metabolism and associated disorders, lipid-protein interactions, lipid biosynthetic enzymes and transport proteins, and the regulation of the genes involving in metabolic diseases.Genetic and Protein Engineeringthrow light on how in Genetic engineering, the direct manipulation of an organism's genome occur using biotechnology and how the useful or valuable proteins are developed using Protein engineering. Glycomics, a new topic containing talks on the study ofglycomes(the entire complement ofsugars, whether free or present in more complexmoleculesof anorganism), including genetic, physiologic, pathologic, and other aspects.Amino Acidsand Proteinscomprise discussion on the synthesis, structure, function and purification of these molecules.Computational Systems Biologyembraces computational modelling in response to the quantitative nature and increasing scale of contemporary datasets.

All of ourBiochemistry conferencestake place in two-three days. During the conference major sessions like speaker sessions and poster presentation, young research forum are organized. Special sessions like International symposium, workshop are also the part of the conference.

Student Poster Competition is organized at Conferences, to encourage students and recent graduates to present their original research which will be later published in the International Journals. All accepted abstracts will be presented at the poster sessions during the conference. Conference Series provides an opportunity to present e-Poster for all the students who cannot attend the conference at 99$ with abstract published in the website with DOI number Live Streaming is a value added service offering to speaker at our conferences

Business networking is an avenue for vendors to have network with Top scientists and colleagues and with an effective low cost marketing method for developing sales and opportunities and contacts, based on referrals and introductions either face-to-face at meetings and gatherings, or by other contact methods such as Telephone, E mail, Digital and Increasingly social and business networking websites.

Scope and Importance:The analysts forecast the GlobalBiochemistryAnalyzers market to grow at a CAGR of 4.50 percent over the period 2012-2016.An insight to the associated value of biochemistry research indicates a growth of approximately $ 3,200 Million in the year 2017 to about $ 4,700 Million by the end of 2024. This represents a CAGR of 5.5% over the forecast period, with a steady growth during the next four years and post a CAGR of over 6% by 2021.However, the negative impact of global recession could pose a challenge to the growth of this market.

The report, the Global Biochemistry Analyzers Market Report, has been prepared based on an in-depth market analysis with inputs from industry experts. The report covers the Americas, and the EMEA and APAC regions; it also covers the Global Biochemistry Analyzers market landscape and its growth prospects in the coming years. The report also includes a discussion of the key vendors operating in this market.

Biochemistry Conferences provides a tremendous opportunity for scientists, biochemists, pharmacists, biotechnologists, young researchers and students. Such platforms are remarkable for learning, interaction and to inspire or aspire. It also increases collaboration and funding options with the companies and research institutes who are actively investing and promoting biochemistry research. High-throughput analysis consumes less time and generates results quickly.

The study was conducted using an objective combination of primary and secondary information including inputs from key participants in the industry. The report contains a comprehensive market and vendor landscape in addition to a SWOT analysis of the key vendors.

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Structural biology: X-ray crystallography of medically important proteins.

Ribozyme mechanism and evolution and the origin of life; antiviral nucleic acid aptamers and the molecular basis of drug resistant HIV-1.

Structural Biology: Viral-Host Interactions and Enzyme Dynamics

Prediction of RNA structure and functions and computational design of RNA-based therapeutic strategies.

RNA biochemistry, single molecule fluorescence, NMR, RNA folding and dynamics.

Combinatorial biology applied to cancer detection and therapy.

Enzymology, physiology and genomics of biological nitrogen fixation and related metabolic activities.

Nucleotide receptors in inflammation and wound healing.

Studies of gene expression and replication, epigenetics, natural product biochemistry; improvement of science education in K-12 schools.

Mechanisms of DNA damage by synthetic and naturally occurring antitumor agents, toxins and mutagens.

Control of gene expression by plant growth regulators.

BTB-Kelch substrate adaptor family in development, oncogenesis and neurodegeneration.

Transmembrane receptors and sensory transduction in bacterial chemotaxis.

Protein trafficking in innate immunity, immune signaling and heavy metal toxicity, plant-pathogen interaction.

NMR investigations of RNA structures and virus:host interactions in HIV-1 replication.

Biophysical characterization of EF-hand calcium-binding proteins; protein-ligand interactions.

Single molecule biophysics.

Study of small signaling molecule-mediated defense responses against biotic stress and lipid metabolism in plant.

Metabolomics, Biological mass spectrometry, Bioanalytical chemistry, LC-UV-MS-SPE-NMR

Biochemical genetics and epigenetics of estrogens and related receptors.

Carbohydrates in cancer and bacterial infection; cancer prevention and treatment; host-pathogen interactions in cystic fibrosis; analytical methodologies.

Cell-cell interactions in pollen recognition and rejection.

Protein targeting and folding in plants, organelle biogenesis, posttranslational modifications.

Proteomics using advanced mass spectrometry and 2D gel electrophoresis.

Carbohydrates and cancer.

Biochemical and physiological function of trace elements. Metabolism and bioavailability of trace elements.

Proteomics of protein phosphorylation and protein kinases; signaling and secretion during host-pathogen interactions; proteomics of drought stress responses.

RNA processing, RNA stability, RNA turnover, RNA decapping enzymes, snoRNPs required for ribosome biogenesis.

Regulation of metal nutrition and impacts on common human diseases.

Collagen in inherited and acquired diseases of bone and kidney; matrix metalloproteinases; medical genetics.

Nitrogen and nitric oxide metabolism in plants.

Cancer diagnostics, radiopharmaceutical imaging and therapy; cell and molecular imaging; phage display.

Metabolism, signal transduction, protein kinases and phosphorylated proteins in plants.

Professor Emerita of Biochemistry and Wurdack Chair Emerita of Biological ChemistryMember, National Academy of Sciences573-884-4160

Molecular chaperones in protein export; analysis of protein-protein interactions.

Reproductive biology: signaling between conceptus and uterus; stem cells.

Combinatorial chemistry of RNA and antimicrobial peptides; the prebiotic RNA world.

Structure-function of crystallins, role of ocular proteases and molecular basis for cataract development.

Students' use of scientific evidence, instructional decision making, classroom assessment, English language learners, design of instructional materials.

MSMC Endowed Professor of Soybean BiotechnologyCurators' Distinguished Professor of Plant SciencesJoint Curators' Distinguished Professor of Biochemistrystaceyg@missouri.edu573-884-4752

Functional genomics of plant-microbe interactions and plant development.

Development and application of large-scale biochemical profiling with a personal emphasis on plant specialized metabolism.

Neurodegenerative diseases, signal transduction, phospholipases A2, oxidative stress, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant botanical compounds.

X-ray crystallography of proline metabolic enzymes, bacterial virulence proteins and anti-DNA antibodies; structural bioinformatics of protein-bound water; molecular dynamics simulations of biological molecules.

Proteomics and phosphoproteomics of seed development and metabolism in oilseeds.

Mechanistic enzymology applied to agriculturally and medically important enzymes.

Transcriptional regulation in striated muscle during development, activity, and stress; transgenic mouse models.

Structural biology: NMR investigations of protein structure, dynamics and protein-protein interactions, particularly proteins important in inflammatory diseases.

Environmental microbiology; bioremediation of toxic metal; genetics and biochemistry of sulfate-reducing bacteria.

Nucleotide receptors and signaling in inflammation, cardiovascular and autoimmune exocrine disease.

Consultation of microscopy methods

MAP kinases in plant immunity and growth/development.

Protein-ligand interactions, protein-protein interactions, computer-aided drug design and modeling of quantitative structure-function relationships of membrane proteins.

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Alphabetical listing | Biochemistry | University of Missouri

Biochemistry Graduate Programs analyze what happens at the molecular levels. With so many advances in the field, students might take part in, or learn about, innovative research in dynamic areas such as genetic engineering, agriculture, pharmacology, veterinary medicine, and biotechnology.

Biochemistry graduate programs offer a rigorous and broad-based curriculum of research and coursework that could lead to a Master of Science (MS) or Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree.

Most programs include a set of core topics that provide a great foundation in biomedical sciences. These may serve as a framework for advanced study in more focused areas.

A diverse and dynamic array of faculty mentors might take part in a given program to represent research areas such as drug discovery, cancer biology, HIV and more. Classes might be taught in a lecture format that could be followed by interactive group discussions on selected topics.

Conference sessions might also be held at intervals. These could provide a chance for students to integrate lecture material. Also, to apply knowledge to solve problems, generate hypotheses, design experiments, and interpret experimental data.

Graduate biochemistry students often spend time in the laboratory to supplement advanced courses. This blend of theory and practice allows students to explore areas such as cell development, growth, heredity, and disease more deeply. Lab work could help students learn to design and conduct experiments that test out theories or lead to discoveries.

A variety of program emphases could help students to zero in on a professionally meaningful topic to anchor their research interests. Also, through intensive science courses and experimentation, students might gain key skills as problem solvers, critical

thinkers, and effective communicators.i

Each biochemistry graduate school has its own set of standards and required components of a completed application. Below are a few things to look for, though individual schools should be the ultimate reference point.

The word biochemistry is the sum of two parts: (1) biology and (2) chemistry. Biochemistry is an active and laboratory-based branch of science that explores the chemical processes within and related to living organisms. Biochemists actually use their knowledge of chemistry and its techniques to solve problems in biology.

Biochemistrys focus is on what is going on inside our cells and therefore, puts under a microscope, components like proteins, lipids and organelles. It also looks at how cells communicate with each other, for example during growth or when we fight an illness.

Biochemists need to understand how the structure of a molecule relates to its function, so as to allow them to predict how molecules will interact. While course lists vary, graduate biochemistry curriculums could draw from many fascinating topics. See below for a few examples.ii

DID YOU KNOW?Nobel Laureate, Sydney Brenners work made it possible to link genetic analysis to cell division and organ formation.iii

Masters in Biochemistry programs could provide an integrated course plan. Students typically work at the interface between chemistry and biology to probe the ways biomolecules interact and direct cellular function.

The first year of a two-year MS program could involve a rigorous coursework that provides a broad foundation in biomedical sciences. Through a hub of core courses, students commonly build proficiency in key areas such as Chemical Thermodynamics and Molecular Genetics.

This base often serves as a framework for advanced biochemical studies that may be scheduled for the second year. In tandem, course plans are often designed to help learners more broadly apply chemistry and biology to exciting and modern areas. Forensic Chemistry, Biochemistry of Cancer and Biochemistry of Obesity and Diabetes are a few examples.

Some programs may allow students to culminate their degree with either a thesis or non-thesis option, each of which results in 30 to 36 graduate-level credits (depending on the university) and a Master of Science degree.

Within the umbrella of Masters in Biochemistry programs, there may be an array of related programs and degrees to consider. A few examples from partner schools are listed below to give you a sense of just how much there is to explore in this field of study.

A Master of Science in Green Chemistry bridges elements of sustainability and environmental studies with chemistry courses from all five sub-disciplines.

The program could also leverage business courses to strengthen students' management and communication skills. A course in Global Environmental Regulation could cover trends and basic policies in legislation both nationally and internationally.

A relatively new concept, green chemistry evolved in the business and regulatory communities as a natural evolution of pollution prevention initiatives.

Per the American Chemical Society, Green chemistry takes the EPA's mandate a step further and creates a new reality for chemistry and engineering. It asks chemists and engineers to design chemicals, chemical processes, and commercial products in a way that, at the very least, avoids the creation of toxics and waste.v

A Master of Science in Biochemical Engineering (MSBChE) program could highlight the study of new technology and modeling tactics for bio-pharmaceutical production and development. Oriented to applicants with an undergrad degree in Chemical Engineering, coursework could aim to foster real-world skills.

MS students may be exposed to upstream and downstream bioprocess basics. Curriculums could also provide the tools to design and optimize pharmaceutical facilities, processes and products, through the use of contemporary analysis and technology.

A Master of Science in Chemistry could meld research, courses in all five branches of chemistry and lab work. Research opportunities, which could differ between schools, might be available inanalytical, inorganic, organic, physical and computational chemistry, as well as in biochemistry.

Students may be able to choose various options with this degree at partner school, Seton University. These are aresearch-based MSwith thesis (30 credits); a coursework-based MS without thesis; a MS with a minor in business administration (34 credits); and a research-based MS that could lead to PhD candidacy (30 credits).

A PhD in Biochemistry is a terminal research degree. Biochemistry PhD programs could provide much the same rigorous course work as a MS program, but with more intensive research components. For instance, classes in biostatistics, ethical conduct and research methods.

On average, the duration of study for a PhD degree is five years. The PhD program trains individuals to become independent researchers and educators in related research fields. Graduates might pursue opportunities to lead scientific investigations in industrial and/or academic settings.v

Courses and research opportunities are often school-dependent and may invite applicants to really look into the faculty on hand to see whether there is a symbiosis with their active projects or theories.

For instance, at partner school, NYMC, research areas in the Graduate School of Basic Medical Sciences might span molecular biology of the cancer process, molecular neurobiology, genetics and biochemistry of bacterial and viral pathogens and many others.

The first year of a PhD program could have students take General Biochemistry classes. Topics such as Biochemistry of Gene Expression Protein Structure and Function may also be required in the first two years. Students might also take several research rotations in the first year. The number of required rotations is often based on previous Masters-level research experience.

Second-year Biochemistry PhD students may need to take a Qualifying Exam. Success on the exam, coupled with completion of required courses and recommendation from faculty, usually means the student is accepted into candidacy. From there, studies and research typically turn to dissertation work.

A PhD in Chemical Engineering is a terminal degree program that stresses research and innovation. At the same time, a full spectrum of courses is meant to help students learn and apply knowledge.

For instance, a class in biochemical engineering could introduce students to the basics of biochemistry, microbiology, cell biology and molecular biology, as applied to several areasamong them, bio-product formation, enzyme kinetics, cell growth kinetics, and sterilization.

Interested students often look to see what active research projects a universitys department offers. For instance, at partner school, Villanova, students could choose from several areas. Some of these might include the following.

A PhD in Chemistry is a terminal degree where students might complete a dissertation and a range of between 40 to 70 credits spread across research, course work and seminars. Students may be able to tailor their studies through their course selection.

In some programs, students might choose from courses in analytical, organic, physical, inorganic and biochemistry. A curriculum might also enable students to take courses in Chemical Kinetics, Quantum Chemistry and Proteins. In the final year, participants might present a full seminar on their research contributions.

A Graduate Certificate in Biochemistry is often structured around just a few courses. While it is not a degree, a certificate could either help students prepare for one, or just provide graduate-level instruction.

As an example, a Certificate in Biochemical Engineering could be a set of courses that introduce the essentials of Biochemical Engineering. In addition, it may allow students to choose a few electives in topics related to Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical industries.

Students who want to earn a Masters in Chemical Engineering, but with an emphasis in Biochemical Engineering, might study to earn a Biochemical Engineering Certificate.

Too busy to earn a graduate degree in biochemistry on campus? Online Biochemistry Graduate Programs may enable students to learn the same material and earn the same degree through a flexible format.

In some programs, all lectures are pre-recorded, and students could log in anytime, from any internet-connected device. Assignments might be scanned and emailed to the professor or faxed in.

Biochemists and biophysicists need a PhD to work in independent research-and-development positions. PhD graduates might begin their careers in temporary postdoctoral research positions that could last several years. ii

The time it takes to complete a PhD in Biochemistry varies. It depends on whether a student commits to a full-time or part-time program, whether they smoothly pass exams, and complete research in a timely manner.

Also, some students might enter a PhD program right from college, which could add more courses than for students who enter with an earned masters degree. Bachelors and masters degree holders might pursue some entry-level positions in biochemistry and biophysics. ii

First off, biochemists might conduct basic and applied research in areas such as metabolism, reproduction, DNA, hormones and so on. Some may manage teams or labs, present findings at conferences, teach what they know, and/or develop new methods, drugs, cures.

Basic research is conducted with the aim to expand human knowledge. This type of research usually asks students to write grant proposals to fund their projects.

Applied research is directed toward solving a particular problem. Drug discovery, biofuels and genetically-engineered crops are examples of applied research.

Based on the May 2016 data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the average annual salary for Biochemists and Biophysicists was $82,180.vi

Easily compare more Biochemistry graduate programs from partner schools. Set filters such as degree level and program format. Or, look for Biochemistry graduate schools in a specific city, state or country. From there, the next step is simple. Fill out the on-page form to contact the programs on your list.

[i] onetonline.org/link/summary/19-1021.00 | [ii] bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social-science/biochemists-and-biophysicists.htm#tab-4 |[iii]nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2002/brenner-facts.html | [iv] acs.org/content/acs/en/greenchemistry/what-is-green-chemistry.html | [v] bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social-science/biochemists-and-biophysicists.htm#tab-2 | [vi] bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social-science/biochemists-and-biophysicists.htm#tab-5

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Biochemistry Graduate Programs & Schools