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Neuroscience

Scientists Reveal How General Anesthesia Works in the Brain – Technology Networks

Hailed as one of the most important medical advances, the discovery of general anesthetics compounds which induce unconsciousness, prevent control of movement and block pain helped transform dangerous and traumatic operations into safe and routine surgery. But despite their importance, scientists still dont understand exactly how general anesthetics work.Now, in a study published in the Journal of Neuroscience, researchers from the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University (OIST) and Nagoya University have revealed how a commonly used general anesthetic called isoflurane weakens the transmission of electrical signals between neurons, at junctions called synapses.

Importantly, we found that isoflurane did not block the transmission of all electrical signals equally; the anesthetic had the strongest effect on higher frequency impulses that are required for functions such as cognition or movement, whilst it had minimal effect on low frequency impulses that control life-supporting functions, such as breathing, said Professor Tomoyuki Takahashi, who leads the Cellular and Molecular Synaptic Function (CMSF) Unit at OIST. This explains how isoflurane is able to cause anesthesia, by preferentially blocking the high frequency signals.

At synapses, signals are sent by presynaptic neurons and received by postsynaptic neurons. At most synapses, communication occurs via chemical messengers or neurotransmitters.

When an electrical nerve impulse, or action potential, arrives at the end of the presynaptic neuron, this causes synaptic vesicles tiny membrane packets that contain neurotransmitters to fuse with the terminal membrane, releasing the neurotransmitters into the gap between neurons. When enough neurotransmitters are sensed by the postsynaptic neuron, this triggers a new action potential in the postsynaptic neuron.

The CMSF unit used rat brain slices to study a giant synapse called the calyx of Held. The scientists induced electrical signals at different frequencies and then detected the action potentials generated in the postsynaptic neuron. They found that as they increased the frequency of electrical signals, isoflurane had a stronger effect on blocking transmission.

To corroborate his units findings, Takahashi reached out to Dr. Takayuki Yamashita, a researcher from Nagoya University who conducted experiments on synapses, called cortico-cortical synapses, in the brains of living mice.

Yamashita found that the anesthetic affected cortico-cortical synapses in a similar way to the calyx of Held. When the mice were anesthetized using isoflurane, high frequency transmission was strongly reduced whilst there was less effect on low frequency transmission.

These experiments both confirmed how isoflurane acts as a general anesthetic, said Takahashi. But we wanted to understand what underlying mechanisms isoflurane targets to weaken synapses in this frequency-dependent manner.

The scientists therefore examined whether isoflurane affected calcium ion channels, which are key in the process of vesicle release. When action potentials arrive at the presynaptic terminal, calcium ion channels in the membrane open, allowing calcium ions to flood in. Synaptic vesicles then detect this rise in calcium, and they fuse with the membrane. The researchers found that isoflurane lowered calcium influx by blocking calcium ion channels, which in turn reduced the probability of vesicle release.

However, this mechanism alone could not explain how isoflurane reduces the number of releasable vesicles, or the frequency-dependent nature of isofluranes effect, said Takahashi.

The scientists hypothesized that isoflurane could reduce the number of releasable vesicles by either directly blocking the process of vesicle release by exocytosis, or by indirectly blocking vesicle recycling, where vesicles are reformed by endocytosis and then refilled with neurotransmitter, ready to be released again.

By electrically measuring the changes in the surface area of the presynaptic terminal membrane, which is increased by exocytosis and decreased by endocytosis, the scientists concluded that isoflurane only affected vesicle release by exocytosis, likely by blocking exocytic machinery.

Crucially, we found that this block only had a major effect on high frequency signals, suggesting that this block on exocytic machinery is the key to isofluranes anesthetizing effect, said Takahashi.

The scientists proposed that high frequency action potentials trigger such a massive influx of calcium into the presynaptic terminal that isoflurane cannot effectively reduce the calcium concentration. Synaptic strength is therefore weakened predominantly by the direct block of exocytic machinery rather than a reduced probability of vesicle release.

Meanwhile, low frequency impulses trigger less exocytosis, so isofluranes block on exocytic machinery has little effect. Although isoflurane effectively reduces entry of calcium into the presynaptic terminal, lowering the probability of vesicle release, by itself, is not powerful enough to block postsynaptic action potentials at the calyx of Held and has only a minor effect in cortico-cortical synapses. Low frequency transmission is therefore maintained.

Overall, the series of experiments provide compelling evidence to how isoflurane weakens synapses to induce anesthesia.

Now that we have established techniques of manipulating and deciphering presynaptic mechanisms, we are ready to apply these techniques to tougher questions, such as presynaptic mechanisms underlying symptoms of neurodegenerative diseases, said Takahashi. That will be our next challenge.

This article has been republished from the following materials. Note: material may have been edited for length and content. For further information, please contact the cited source.

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Scientists Reveal How General Anesthesia Works in the Brain - Technology Networks

Embryology

COVID-19 interrupts fertility plans for hopeful couples in the United Kingdom – PRI

Thousands of women may lose out on their chance to have a baby because of COVID-19. Fertility clinics across Britain shut their doors in mid-April, pausing in vitro fertilization (IVF) treatment for many women midcycle. The decision has left thousands in limbo. No one knows when the clinics will open up again and for those who have spent years trying to conceive the closure is a cruel blow.

As lockdowns began, jokes were made about the baby boom in nine months' time. But its hard for some to see the funny side if they'vebeen trying for a baby for years. Anita Brien in Hull, in northeast England, has tried to conceive forfive years; Sian Brindlow in southern England has tried to conceive for 12 years. For these women, the quips can wear them down. Brien whos 34, blocked some social media accounts because it was too upsetting to read the jokes. Comments by parents on Facebook about the trials of home-schooling have left her feeling empty, too.

Related:Mourning in the midst of a pandemic

I'd love to be getting annoyed with my children right now. I'd love to be not understanding the work that the school has sent home, but I can't because I don't have those children, she said.

Brien was only three days into her first IVF treatment when she received a text last monthtelling her to stop taking her medication. Her fertility clinic was closing down because of the coronavirus. Even though she was in the early stage of the cycle, Brien was heartbroken. After so many negative pregnancy tests, the IVF treatment had been the first positive step in her hope of having a baby.

This was really positive, something really practical was going tohappen. So, I was completely devastated, she said.

But Brien, an events fundraiser, is practical, too. Her partner Matt is a paramedic and hes seen the close-upimpact of the virus.

As women across Britain began to receive the news that their treatments were being canceled, the Fertility Network, a national charity for people dealing with fertility issues, was inundated with calls. The organization's chief executive, Gwenda Burns, said women were distressed not just because their IVF was stopped, but because nobody could offer any guidance on what the next stage would be. But she thinks theHuman Fertilisation and Embryology Authority, the British regulatory body, made the right call to order the clinics closure.

I think for the safety of patients, the safety of embryos and of NHS [National Health Service] staff,there was no other actual way this could be done, Burns said.

We don't know how many months were going to have to wait now and, you know, we hear all these miracle stories of people conceiving well into their 40s. But that's what they are. They are miracles. They don't happen to everybody."

In Britain, women are entitled to a number of free fertility treatmentsunder the NHSbut it varies depending on age and where they live. Sian Brindlow, a teacher in West Sussex, was on her third IVF cycle when she got the call saying her treatment needed to be postponed.

Like Brien, Brindlowunderstands the need to pause treatment, but worries about the time passing.

We don't know how many months were going to have to wait now and, you know, we hear all these miracle stories of people conceiving well into their 40s. But that's what they are. They are miracles. They don't happen to everybody, she said.

Related:Many people arent putting love on hold during COVID-19

Brindlow says trying to have a baby has dominated her life and that of her husband Nick for over a decade. She says they naively thought it would just happen. Undergoing IVF treatment, she said, also gradually takes over your life.

You know, your evenings are injections, your hormones are not your own. You can't plan any weekend breaks, you cant plan any holidays."

Kirsty Duncan, 32, who lives in Cheshire, understands how all-consuming the experience can be. She says she is at the stage where many of her friends are getting pregnant, and she cant help wondering when her time will come.

It's an incredibly lonely place to be as a couple because, you know, you've got friends that are announcing pregnancies left, right and center. And you thinkwhy is it so easy for them? And it's not for us?

Duncan, an early career manager and her husband, Adam, areopen about their difficulties trying to conceive. Duncan posts updates on her Instagram account of their journey so far and says the communityis hugely supportive. But she says some couples are very reluctant to discuss their fertility issues and wonders if it might comedown to being British.

I thinkthere's this kind of British uneasiness about talking about something to do with sex, especially if your sex organs don't work. Its like well, if they're talking about IVF,that means they must have had sex at some point in their life. And that's just that's too distasteful for us to talk about."

I thinkthere's this kind of British uneasiness about talking about something to do with sex, especially if your sex organs don't work. Its like, well, if they're talking about IVF,that means they must have had sex at some point in their life. And that's just that's too distasteful for us to talk about, she laughed.

It might also have to do with the advice people seem determined to dish out. Duncan says shes heard countless suggestions about how she just needs to calm down and everything will work out fine.

There's so many people that I know will just say, 'You just need to go on holiday. Get a dog, get drunk.' I would say the worst thing is when people say just relax.

Related:Countries herald lifting of coronavirus lockdowns, but UK says not yet

Trying to remain calm while dealing with fertility issues during a pandemic is a challenge. But its not the biggest issue on Briens mind right now. She has another slightly unexpected concern. Chocolate.

My biggest worry is how much chocolate I'm going toeat over the next few months, she said.

It might sound frivolous, but there is a good reason for this. The NHSin Britain only funds your IVF treatment if your body mass index is under a certain number, and Brien, like most people right now, is trying not to comfort eat her way through the lockdown.

For many women, the pandemic is a reminder of just how little control theyhave over their lives. Brindlow says she is now leaving it up to fate to decide whether shell be a mother someday. If it's not meant to be, thats OK, too, she said.

We've had a lot of time just us two. You know, I only want kids with him, I don't want them with anyone else. And I know it sounds twee, but, you know, I'm really lucky I do have the love of my life. ... Not everyone has that.

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COVID-19 interrupts fertility plans for hopeful couples in the United Kingdom - PRI

Human Behavior

‘We can’t go back to life as it was.’ Whitmer ‘hopeful’ Legislature will extend State of Emergency – WXYZ

(WXYZ) In a one-on-one interview with 7 Action News, Governor Gretchen Whitmer discussed the state's effort to reopen the economy while mitigating the spread of COVID-19.

Whitmer noted that officials are going to have to measure every step of the way in order to reopen sectors of the economy.

"As we reengage a sector of our economy, we've got to watch and make sure we don't have another increase in cases," she said.

She said the state cannot put a hard and fast timeline on re-opening the economy.

"A lot of this depends on human behavior," she said. "No one's as eager to keep turning that dial forward as I am. We have taken a deep dive into the data and assessed risks, so when it is safe to dial it up, we will be prepared.

The governor noted that offices are densely populated areas, and said people who are currently working from home should plan to continue.

Regarding the upcoming standoff with the Legislature, Whitmer said she is "hopeful" they will extend the state of emergency.

"We can't go back to life as it was," she said. "We could have a second wave of COVID-19 and it could necessitate a second stay-at-home order."

On Monday, Attorney General William Barr directed federal prosecutors across the country to be on the lookout for state and local coronavirus-related restrictions that could be unconstitutional.

Whitmer said Michigan's unique situation with COVID-19 required aggressive action.

"Michiganders did the right thing," she said. "We took this seriously and saved lives in the process."

"We can save lives and adhere to the spirit of the constitution," she said.

Ten workers, who are regional coordinators for the Military Veterans Affairs Agency, say they won't have a job come May 15 due to budget cuts. They've said they are concerned about the veterans they help.

Whitmer noted that the budget cuts were a decision made at the department level and she is concerned about them.

She also said state government will have to make a lot of tough decisions.

"It is my hope that those aren't long-term cuts that have been made and that the needs of our veterans can be met one way or another," she said.

Additionally, Whitmer said she does not know what college students can expect come fall.

"What I do know is that we have to be really smart about how we re-engage," she said.

She noted that events and activities that have a lot of people in one closed-in space will probably be the last to come online safely. She said universities and colleges are doing an "incredible" amount of work to understand the pandemic and make decisions.

FEMA Region 5 Administrator James Joseph said he thinks there will be several months ahead for FEMA to work in response and recovery. Joseph said FEMA will continue to plan and be prepared for whatever it is Michigan needs.

Whitmer said the state's hope is that FEMA can leave Michigan when it's safe, but that they don't leave too early.

"We've really got to be smart and avoid the second wave at all costs," she said. "None of us want to be back here come August or September. I'd love to see FEMA leave and not come back, and that's precisely why we have to get this right.

Additional Coronavirus information and resources:

Read our daily Coronavirus Live Blog for the latest updates and news on coronavirus.

Click here for a page with resources including a COVID-19 overview from the CDC, details on cases in Michigan, a timeline of Governor Gretchen Whitmer's orders since the outbreak, coronavirus' impact on Southeast Michigan, and links to more information from the Michigan Department of Health and Human Services, the CDC and the WHO.

View a global coronavirus tracker with data from Johns Hopkins University.

Find out how you can help metro Detroit restaurants struggling during the pandemic.

See all of our Helping Each Other stories.

See complete coverage on our Coronavirus Continuing Coverage page.

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'We can't go back to life as it was.' Whitmer 'hopeful' Legislature will extend State of Emergency - WXYZ

Human Behavior

Dr. Oz optimistic on warm weather slowing coronavirus, but says US must be ‘better prepared’ for winter surge – FOX 35 Orlando

Dr. Mehmet Oz said on Tuesday that warmer weather should slow down the spread of coronavirus, but cautioned that Americans will have to brace for the second wave of infections next winter.

Human behavior changes when it is warmer outside so you can naturally socially distance a little bit more, the stability of the virus and transmission rates are altered when it is warmer. The virus doesnt want to be in warm weather, it likes to be in cold weather, it can travel further in the air, the host of "The Dr. Oz Show" told Fox & Friends.

MORE NEWS:Florida coronavirus cases pass 32,800; death roll surges to 1,171, Florida Department of Health says

Oz reacted to White House Task Force member Dr. Deborah Birx's appearance on "Fox & Friends," where she said that officials will be watching how the coronavirus spreads in warm weather in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.

"Our job in the White House is to ensure for whatever happens [to the U.S.] in the fall," Birx said.

The novel coronavirus that has ravaged the globe and brought the world's economy to a standstill may not diminish significantly in warmer weather, according to a report from a panel convened by the National Academy of Sciences.

MORE NEWS:If you think you had coronavirus, new antibody test available without trip to doctor's office

The findings, from a report presented to the White House on Tuesday, are an attempt to determine how COVID-19 may or may not behave once temperatures start to warm up in late spring and summer. But there's a lot about the virus that is still not understood by scientists.

"The laboratory data available so far indicate reduced survival of SARS-CoV-2 at elevated temperatures, and variation in temperature sensitivity as a function of the type of surface on which the virus is placed. However, the number of well-controlled studies available at this time on the topic remains small," the report states.

Oz pressed the need for watching the coronavirus as it impacts the Southern Hemisphere in order to prepare for another wave of spread in the winter.

MORE NEWS:Trump suggests schools should open for a 'short period of time' before academic year ends

We want to see what happens in the Southern Hemisphere so we can predict what might be coming back to us in the winter. There's no reason to think we won't get more of an impact from the virus this winter, especially when you add influenza. So we want to be better prepared, Oz said.

He added that many Americans may have one or more "risk factors" for contracting a severe case of COVID-19, but are not aware of it. Oz stressed that a significant number of people suffer from pre-diabetes or unknowingly have hypertension, complicating the efforts to fully reopen the country.

"If you don't know that you're vulnerable, you won't be able to distance yourself. ... Social distancing is critically important for the well-being of society. We need it desperately. This is an explosive infection. One person can spread it to six," he noted.

GET UPDATES ON THIS STORY FROM FOXNEWS.COM.

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Dr. Oz optimistic on warm weather slowing coronavirus, but says US must be 'better prepared' for winter surge - FOX 35 Orlando

Human Behavior

Here’s the best way to lead a team brainstorm online – Business Insider – Business Insider

Today's current business climate hasshifted many aspects of work online including team brainstorms.

And that may be for the better.

Research in the journal Computers in Human Behavior finds employees reach more creative solutions and ideas via virtual brainstorms. Unlike in-person meetings, where one extrovert can hog the talking time, Harvard Business Review speculates employees feel more anonymous online, leading more people to speak up and participate in the brainstorm.

"Virtual brainstorming retains the original postulate of traditional brainstorming that teams can crowdsource creativity by curating the ideas they collectively produce in an informal, free-flowing, stream-of-consciousness, session but overcoming the main, originally unforeseen, barriers," HBR author and psychologist Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic wrote.

If you're hosting an online brainstorming meeting, here are some tools and tricks to make sure all team members are engaged and participating.

Hiraman/Getty Images

Some tools, like online whiteboards, help create the virtual version of a team brainstorm meeting.

For a more seamless brainstorming meeting, use tools that exist within the software you already use. Online whiteboards let meeting participants draw and write freely on a shared screen. And since some entrepreneurs previously told Business Insider whiteboards help conceptualize major themes and keeps them focused, teams would benefit from bringing the old-school trick online.

Maja Hitij/Getty

Joris Janssens, a company-culture consultant with the IDEA Consult, developed a step-by-step guide on how to virtually brainstorm with 60 teammates. Aside from getting everyone on a video platform and taking notes, a major part of Janssens's guide recommended breaking your team into working groups made up of six to eight people.

"In the working groups, several questions needed to be answered," Janssens wrote on Medium. "The participants were asked to take notes intuitively, and one idea per cell, as if each cell was a sticky note. Different sets of questions were divided over different 'tabs' in the sheet, relating to the different stages of their exercise."

On video meetings, meeting organizers can separate assigned groups into "conference rooms," or meetings with a handful of participants. Hosts can toggle back and forth between the Zoom conference rooms to check in on conversations.

Janssens recommends organizing the groups ahead of time and preparing questions to work on in a shared document.

Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock

Unspoken rules for collaborating in your office include not speaking over someone else, politely listening to presentations, and giving your undivided attention to the task at hand.

Working from home might be more distracting, but you must maintain the same etiquette for brainstorming sessions to remain effective, according to Ordua from Vodafone.

"I would recommend you start with these four areas to lead in an agile virtual environment: create a safe environment to fail and learn fast, use collaboration tools, encourage continuous feedback and deepen your relationships," Ordua told Inc. "This approach can benefit small businesses up to the CEO of a multinational organization."

Proper etiquette includes arriving to virtual meetings on time, muting your microphone when you're not speaking, using your camera, and actually participating in the workshop.

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Here's the best way to lead a team brainstorm online - Business Insider - Business Insider

Human Behavior

Eye Pupil Size Changes Are Linked to Decision-making – Technology Networks

A team of US Army and academic researchers are investigating how eye-pupil size changes can indicate a person's cognitive state as a means to enable teaming with autonomous agents.The future Army battlespace will require humans and AI agents to team effectively to accomplish mission-critical goals. Although AI agents can fill gaps in human performance, they are rigid and lack the flexibility inherent to human behavior, which could interfere with teaming.

"Humans' brains are amazing, adaptable systems that automatically apply the right cognitive processes to complete a task and initiates each process at the right time," said Dr. Russell Cohen Hoffing, a scientist at the U.S. Army Combat Capabilities Development Command's Army Research Laboratory. "However, our brain's resources are limited. Being able to predict a Soldier's mental status before resources are maxed out is an opportunity for an autonomous agent to deploy capabilities to aid the Soldier. To make progress on enabling this technology, we wanted to better understand how physiological signals, such as pupil size changes, are related to performance and cognitive states."

A joint effort between researchers from the Army and the Institute of Collaborative Biotechnologies at the University of California, Santa Barbara, the Cognitive Resilience and Sleep History, or CRASH, project seeks to understand how variations in state (as measured by physiological sensors) influence subsequent performance. PLOS ONE published the team's research on a subset of the data set.

In this research, the team sought to understand the cognitive processes that affect pupil size changes and the reliability of these relationships as a foundation to estimate how human cognitive processes and performance can vary in real-world, cognitively challenging tasks, Cohen Hoffing said. The pupil is a unique data source, as it is the only internal organ of the body that brain networks directly modulate and is visible to the outside world.

"The potential of this research is exciting because eye tracking technologies are becoming universal in both commercial and military contexts," Cohen Hoffing said. "Inherent to eye tracking algorithms, pupil size is estimated but rarely used for analytics. Our research program aims to generate knowledge products that enhance usability of this type of data to have greater insight into cognitive processes such as attention and decision making."

The researchers collected repeated measurements from participants on eight separate occasions over four months. The data provided insights into the consistency of the pupil response and relationships to behavior both within and between individual with a unique glimpse into cognitive processes over time rather than in single-session studies, Cohen Hoffing said.

The findings of the study demonstrated that researchers can use pupil features to index both static and rapid-time varying aspects of cognition to understand how cognitive processes influence performance. Results indicated that at the trial-level, the time that each participant took to answer a mental arithmetic question correlated with the time to maximum pupil dilation and the size of the pupil. The relationship between performance and rapid pupil features indicated that a latent pupil response correlated with the process of reaching an answer, while pupil response increases correlated with the amount of attention applied to provide an answer. In contrast, average pupil size correlated with variability in how fast participants completed questions suggesting that average pupil size indicates a readiness to perform the mental arithmetic task.

Results of the study confirm and extend previous research, showing that cognition reliably influences the pupil on at least two time-courses: a rapid, transient influence and a longer-lasting, sustained influence.

"These findings allow us to further understand in which cases pupil data may be useful for human and agent teaming," said Dr. Steven Thurman, Army scientist and senior author on the manuscript. "For example, it may be the case that pupil size is most reliable in complex, real-world contexts only when averaging data over the course of several seconds or minutes. Such a case would enable the ability to track longer timescale changes in mental states, like vigilance, workload or fatigue, but potentially limit its use for tracking moment-to-moment decisions. It is important to employ longitudinal studies like this to understand the utility of pupil data on these varying timescales."

Future studies will examine how to apply this research in real-world contexts, such as using virtual reality to test whether pupil size features can be exploited in dynamic contexts. This will be a steppingstone to test the efficacy of adaptive autonomous agents that use pupil size as an effective measure of hidden human states.ReferenceHoffing et al. (2020). Dissociable mappings of tonic and phasic pupillary features onto cognitive processes involved in mental arithmetic. PLOS One. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0230517

This article has been republished from the following materials. Note: material may have been edited for length and content. For further information, please contact the cited source.

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Eye Pupil Size Changes Are Linked to Decision-making - Technology Networks

Human Behavior

The quick and the breached: Futureproofing security operations – SC Magazine

Security is about rates: the adversary is innovative, motivated, funded and enjoys the advantages of asymmetry in cyber conflict. The rate of improvement in the proficiency of attackers is increasing faster than, by-and-large, that of the defenders. The first step to being futureproofed is to be present-proofed; and the essence of that is to be quick and adaptive. In a word, security needs to be more agile with people, processes, and technology.

For many, the agile R&D movement can feel a bit revolutionary or even cultish. It is, after all, a complete change in how engineering is done, shifting to user centrism, owning production code, and an emphasis on pragmatism in what we now call DevOps. The agile manifesto, though, has extremely valuable lessons and can lead to a similar revolution in SecOps: the user isnt to blame, policies have to account for real human behavior, a focus on processes. Perfection is the enemy of the good, and incremental improvement is the heart of accelerating how effective security operations are.

IOCs are no longer the star in the fight to detect and prevent advanced attacks. There will always be a role for IOCs in reducing noise, stopping the low-hanging fruit of the threat world and adding color; but security is a chaotic system with an intelligent opponent. The adversary is always on the attack and has effectively found ways around IOCs. The only time an IOC bell rings is either when the attacker makes a mistake or when they intentionally drive a diversion to increase noise-to-signal ratio.

The heart of futureproof security operations is a lean-in, detection mindset; an agile methodology; and a dedication to incremental improvement. This inevitably leads to new behavioral telemetry sources like XDR, decrementing just capture it all from the SIEM years, with an emphasis on reliable and hard-to-predict-by-attacker automation. Its vital along the way for CISOs to focus on logistics, communications, and dialog with their business stakeholders, to pick the right KPIs, and to make clear that the goal of security isnt to stop everything but rather to optimize the reduction of security risk. This is the path to going from a world where the attackers only have to get it right once to a world where they have to be right all the time, and one day to a world where even when they do everything right, they still fail more than not.

Sam Curry, Chief Security Officer, Cybereason

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The quick and the breached: Futureproofing security operations - SC Magazine

Human Behavior

Social Science Weekly: The Biology Behind Your Political Views – Daily Free Press

Psychologists are interested in what motivates and underlies the patterns of our innermost thoughts, our outermost behaviors and everything in-between. Biologists, in contrast, are set with the daunting task of demystifying the final products of 3.5 billion years of evolutionary change, in all of their staggering variety and complexity.

The overlap of the two is behavioral biology, a field with findings so surprising they threaten to shake the very core of our democratic institutions and spell the beginning of the end of the criminal justice system.

Does that sound a tad overdramatic? Perhaps, but its also true, and it may even be understating the significance of this new marriage of the social and life sciences.

Robert Sapolsky, neuroscientist and primatologist at Stanford University, published what became one of the most famous lecture series on Stanfords YouTube channel, Human Behavioral Biology, with millions of views per video. This enthusiastic embrace of science by the general public may sound surprising given the headiness of the topic, but Sapolskys hilarious quips and frequent digressions make for a fascinating if sometimes information-heavy experience. Throughout the course, viewers are treated to a series of case studies with implications so strange as to hardly be believable.

Yet, they are unforgivingly accurate accounts of the intimate connection between biology and the inner self. A spate of recent studies published by the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America shows that a jury verdict, even when granting or denying parole to candidates convicted of heinous felonies, can be swung simply based on whether the sentencing phase was scheduled for before or after lunch. Judicial acts of mercy may be more a matter of a dip in blood-sugar than due process, it turns out. Worse, it would seem meting out punishment is never easier than on an empty stomach.

Worse still, Sapolsky said in his video lecture that a few ounces of junk food in the morning will set in motion neurobiological processes that could ultimately make the difference between murder and rage, or the difference between a crime of passion and of coldhearted calculation.

This doesnt stop with criminal justice. In a psychiatric study in Jerusalem entitled Homo Deus: A History of Tomorrow, by Israel historian Yuval Noah Harari, patients with extreme cases of clinical depression made a last-ditch effort at recovery by submitting themselves to an experimental (and consent-form laden) treatment involving subcranial electrode implants. Patients described a dark cloud of despair and an oppressive sense of worthlessness stalking them every day of their tortured lives and then feeling it evaporate at the flick of a switch.

Weeks later, one female outpatient returned to the lab complaining that her depression had suddenly returned with a vengeance. In her lengthy pre-clinical interview, she despaired that the treatment must have failed, only for the experimenters to discover that her implants battery life had depleted faster than expected. After changing it out, the dark cloud lifted again.

What does all of this mean?

It means that our deepest inner feelings and their outward expression are downstream from biology in a way many people fail to realize or fully appreciate. As Sapolsky concludes, it may even be that free will is what we call biology we havent discovered yet. The implications of these little-known ideas are nothing less than revolutionary, poised to overthrow some of the most basic tenets of liberal democracy.

The presence of smelly garbage in a neuroscience lab at the University of Arkansas says otherwise, as reported in a study by the National Center for Biotechnology Information. It turns out that disgust-triggering odors can radically alter the way people respond to political questionnaires. Even more surprisingly, a sense of disgust heavily biases test-takers toward right-wing responses to topical questions in American politics, such as with gay marriage, producing levels of social conservatism that can be difficult to find even in the public square.

And thats only scratching the surface. In Harvard psychologist Steven Pinkers literature review on behavioral genetics, The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature, he describes the many ways in which geneticists have established that our genes create temperamental biases which heavily influence our political affiliations.

His study concluded that someone who is high in the personality trait conscientiousness, for example, is far more likely to vote red and is more sensitive to feelings of ethical disgust. On the other hand, someone high in openness to experience and agreeableness is significantly less likely to do so.

This may mean that much of the purpose of a college education is to begin the process of taking back your worldview from your genes, and that the first step to critical thinking is to learn to disenfranchise your DNA. Though it may sound bizarre or disturbing, this emerging neuroscience of belief and behavior is likely to make itself impossible to ignore in the next 20 years or so. We may be able to sweep it under the rug for a time, holding back on criminal justice reform or a fundamental re-write of democratic voting procedures. But it wont last.

Are you prepared for when that time comes?

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Social Science Weekly: The Biology Behind Your Political Views - Daily Free Press

Human Behavior

Marin Montgomery’s first book with publisher releases this Friday – Iowa City Press-Citizen

Isaac Hamlet, Iowa City Press-Citizen Published 3:55 p.m. CT April 27, 2020

Author Marin Montgomery(Photo: Special to the Press-Citizen)

Marin Montgomery had not planned to publish "What We Forgot to Bury"in the wake of a global pandemic. In fact, five years ago, Montgomery probably wouldhave told you she had noplan to publish a book at all.

"I never meant to start writing," Montgomery explained. "I liked writing and writing short stories, but it was always a passion and a hobby."

Montgomery, who grew up in Newton, Iowa,now lives in Arizona working in higher education. She hadn't really considered writing books until a childhood friend who'd started self-publishing prompted Montogomery to do so.

Intrigued, Montgomery followed her suggestion. In 2017,she beganself-publishing and over the past few years, has put out roughly half a dozen books, most of which are thrillers or contain aspects of mystery.

"I love human psychology and human behavior," said Montgomery of her attraction to the genre. "I tend to have an overactive imagination, so writing has been a creative outlet for me."

It was in late 2018 when publishing company Thomas & Mercer reached out to her. By sheer happenstance, it happened to bethe same publisher her childhood friendwasworking with. Noting this instance of serendipity, Montgomerypitched Thomas & Mercersome new book ideasout of which"What We Forgot to Bury" floated to the top.

The book follows two women. One is Charlotte Coburn,a college professor acting as a witness in a trial and the other is Elizabeth Loughlin, the17-year-old daughter of the accused, who is trying to prove that Charlotte lied when testifying against her father.

With the release of the book, not only is Montgomery getting a new experience in the publishing world, she's also in the unique position of launching a book immediately after some states are begin to reopen in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic.

"I'm waiting to see how it does when it releases on May 1," said Montgomery. "I know a lot of people are at home reading trying to keep their sanity and their health. It'll be interesting to see if people are still at home reading in May."

In spite of this though, her own productivity has remainedon course. Not only is "What We Forgot to Bury" on the cusp of physical publication after being made available digitally on Amazon, she's also just completed the first draftof her next stand-alone book.

"I just turned that in," she said, "but I will say that I struggled with everything going on in the world and I'd be lying if I said it didn't affect me."

She's used to both traveling for her full-time job and bouncing between coffee shops to get writing done. Working from home has been somewhat straining butshe's made stil made progress. In addition to the first draft of her next book she's also put together a rough draft of a screenplay, something she felt empowered to do as a result of her publishing deal.

"Getting published has given me confidence," Montgomery said. "You always have in the back of your mind 'Why me? Why would I get picked.' When I got a publishing deal I thought 'Why not me?'"

Isaac Hamletcovers arts, entertainment and culture at the Press-Citizen. Reach him at ihamlet@press-citizen.com or (319)-688-4247, follow him on Twitter @IsaacHamlet

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Marin Montgomery's first book with publisher releases this Friday - Iowa City Press-Citizen

Human Behavior

How Banks Are Using Behavioral Science to Prevent Scandals – Harvard Business Review

Executive Summary

Even following reforms passed in the wake of the 2008 financial crisis, large financial institutions continue to be beset by scandals. Several European banks are using an innovative approach to prevent ethical lapses before they spiral out of control. Called behavioral risk teams, they can move freely within an organization.The key competencies that all firms can mimic from these teams include: understanding how to use behavioral science and by extension OD; investigating underlying root causes instead of treating surface level symptoms; focusing on principles as opposed to rules to manage behavior, and identifying risky behavior that is tied to subcultures or departments of an organization versus an individual.

Efforts to deal with corporate malfeasance, employee misconduct, and ethical failings are falling short. Nowhere is this more visible than in the financial sector. More than $400 billion has been paid in fines since the 2008 financial crisis. But one corner of the industry offers hope: It is using behavioral science tools to identify risky behavior early on.

Some of Europes largest banks ING Group and ABN Amro in the Netherlands and RBS in London have created behavioral risk teams composed of professionals trained in organizational psychology, anthropology, forensics, and other disciplines. Each team has a direct reporting line to the chief audit, compliance, or risk executive. Teams also have the independence and autonomy to conduct companywide reviews and assess business units in which they perceive behavioral risk.

Lets look at how the RBS team operates. It engages in deep dive reviews of areas that warrant attention, zeroing in on small groups (fewer than 500 members) selected according to input from internal and external stakeholders, including members of the internal audit, compliance, human resources, and legal teams. It searches for in-depth, granular insights specific to certain subcultures where ethical lapses may be occurring.

We often ask people in the target groups, If you were us, where would you go? says Shweta Pajpani, a senior manager on the team. People have hots spots in mind from their interactions, bankwide dashboards, and measurement reports, and their insights are valuable to our team.

Once the team selects a business unit for examination, it assesses it in the following five ways:

Surveys.These go to the entire group under review and include statements that can elicit responses ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree.

Confidential conversations.The team holds a series of one-on-ones with employees who together make up a representative sample of the group. Discussions are conversational in tone and aimed at illuminating typical behaviors for example, patterns that may be driving poor outcomes.

Focus groups.These are held with no more than 10 people at a time. Like the one-on-one conversations, they are aimed at gaining insights into behavioral patterns in and the climate of the area under scrutiny.

Examinations of the formal environment.The team looks at policies and processes such as leadership communication, governance structures, and performance measurements.

Independent observations.Team members attend leadership and staff meetings and observe employees working at their tasks to gain a perspective on things such as group dynamics and interactions.

The teams findings are shared with executives of the unit in question, who are expected to act on any recommendations for change within a specified period of time. Because RBSs behavioral risk team is part of the banks audit function, its findings are considered audit points that need to be addressed.

Other banks take slightly different approaches, but the efforts we have studied share certain characteristics:

1. Executive sponsorship is critical, given the teams broad remit.

2. Teams are small, typically having just five to 10 members with diverse backgrounds as outlined above.

3. Effectiveness is difficult to measure, given that the goal is to mitigate risky behavior at an early stage. But one way to estimate the ROI would be to look at the cost of the team over a number of years and compare it with the fines the organization might be expected to incur if the risky behavior continued and led to regulatory enforcement actions.

4. Direct employee engagement is crucial. Although surveillance technology can play a role companies can monitor conversations, chat rooms, email, and so on people themselves lie at the core of teams efforts. They are central to helping a team understand the formal environment the risk management and governance framework, available knowledge and training, human resources, IT systems, and work procedures in the groups they are studying. They are also essential to understanding the informal environment, or culture: such things as the clarity or opaqueness around decision making, which individuals are promoted, what gives certain people status, and how engaged employees are in what they do every day.

Wies Wagenaar leads a team of eight behavioral scientists at ABN Amro. Heres howshe describes its methodological framework: We believe the behavior of our employees and leadership and the choices that they make are the outcome of all the signals they get from our organization as a whole.

Mirea Raaijmakers, the head of INGs behavioral risk team, explains,In all workplaces there is a risk that the way people behave could potentially lead to negative business outcomes. This type of risk relates to the way things are done in an organization and the invisible drivers underlying these behaviors. It is about how decisions are made, how people communicate, whether they are able to take ownership, how group dynamics and beliefs drive behavior, and how this could lead to high-risk behaviors.

The steps these banks are taking could be applied across a range of industries. That would mean taking organizational development to the next logical level: engaging employees directly to understand the environment in which they operate. With an internal group of neutral consultants who can serve as the conscience of the organization, companies can unearth the values, norms, and beliefs that lie beneath the surface and assess whether they are productive or subversive. In the case of the latter, the behavioral risk team can recommend interventions to change the organizations culture.

As the behavioral risk teams at these European banks can attest, the key to preventing ethical scandals is identifying risky behavior before its too late.

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How Banks Are Using Behavioral Science to Prevent Scandals - Harvard Business Review