Monthly Archives: October 2023

Human Behavior

WashU Expert: Some parasites turn hosts into ‘zombies’ – The … – Washington University in St. Louis

From haunted houses to video games, movies and trick-or-treaters, zombies are everywhere this time of year. But zombies arent real or are they?

While the flesh-eating undead portrayed on television are just fiction, there are clear examples of parasites that have evolved to manipulate their hosts, often in ways that affect host behavior to favor parasite survival and spread, said Theresa Gildner, an assistant professor of biological anthropology in Arts & Sciences at Washington University in St. Louis. Some even live inside the brains of their host eek!

One way parasites manipulate their host is through influencing the release of neurotransmitters the chemical messengers of the nervous system like dopamine, epinephrine, serotonin and other chemicals that directly impact mood and behavior, Gildner said.

Given how common parasites are in the world and how well they have evolved to manipulate us usually without the host knowing they are being influenced theres a chance many of us are already zombies, Gildner said.

Below, Gildner answers questions about parasitic infections including those that try to hijack the brains of their host and explains why its unlikely you will need that zombie apocalypse survival plan. Read on if you dare.

What are parasitic infections?

A parasite is typically defined as any organism that relies on a host for its essential nutrients, without any benefit to the host, and is therefore considered harmful. There are several types of parasites, including single-celled protozoas that cause Taxoplasmosis and malaria; helminths, parasitic worms like hookworm or tapeworms; and ectoparasites, parasitic species that live outside the human body, like ticks, fleas and lice.

Parasitic infections are extremely common globally, both for humans and animals. If you have a pet, youve probably given them flea or deworming medications to prevent parasite infections. But human parasitic disease is also still widespread, especially in low-resource communities that lack the resources and infrastructure to effectively prevent and treat infection.

With the exception of select parasitic diseases, like malaria, most are not lethal. However, these conditions often impair physical and cognitive function and result in suboptimal growth and development patterns. Overall, parasitic disease contributes to the perpetuation of structural health inequities, especially among marginalized communities where lack of access to key health determinants medical care, functional sanitation systems and adequate nutrition both increase parasite exposure and compound the negative impacts of infection.

Effective preventative measures usually linked with effective sanitation infrastructure as well as medical tests and treatments do exist for many parasite species, but not everyone has access to these resources, including in the United States. So, even though we have the tools to control parasitic disease in many cases, we are still nowhere near close to eradicating most.

Could parasitic infections cause a zombie apocalypse?

Host-manipulating parasites are real, but it seems unlikely that parasites will cause a zombie apocalypse on the scale of those on The Last of Us or The Walking Dead for a few reasons. First, in order to spread easily from person to person, the parasite would need to be specific and well adapted to human hosts. In reality, many parasites have relatively long, complex life cycles that involve spending part of their development in the environment and/or in another species besides humans to successfully mature and reproduce.

Second, for the scenarios depicted in these shows, the parasite would have to incapacitate or kill its host quickly following infection, but this is an ineffective strategy for most parasites since they need time to mature and reproduce in the human host. If the parasite infection was this fast and severe, the infected human might die before coming into contact with other potential hosts, preventing future transmission to new human hosts.

Third, along these same lines, an infection this serious would almost certainly be readily apparent to uninfected people, leading to disease prevention measures such as quarantine that decrease the risk of future spread. Many human parasites therefore seem to impact the human host in more subtle ways, so were typically able to go about our daily lives and unknowingly spread the parasite to other people over a longer period of time.

But examples of zombie-like behavior in animals do occur, right?

There are many examples of parasites that hijack the minds of infected animals and insects to achieve a very specific aim. One well-known mind-altering pathogen is rabies, which impacts mammals like dogs, raccoons and sometimes humans, making them more aggressive. Rabid animals are more likely to bite other animals and people, which allows transmission through the saliva. The virus has also been shown to make the host afraid of water, leading them to avoid consuming water, which might dilute viral load in saliva and reduce disease spread.

Another example is the trematodeDicrocoelium dendriticum, a type of parasitic worm. This parasite ultimately wants to get to a grazing animal so it can complete its life cycle and reproduce, but it must go through an intermediate host the ant to do this. The parasite affects the brains of ants, causing them to climb to the top of a blade of grass at night instead of returning to the ant colony. This behavior increases the likelihood that a grazing animal accidentally consumes the infected ant during the night while it is grazing.

Theres also the Hymenoepimecis argyraphaga, a parasitic wasp that infects spiders. Female wasps will first paralyze the spider and then lay an egg in its abdomen. The egg hatches and larva feeds on the spiders blood while the spider is still alive. The spider will behave normally for several days, but then the wasp larva injects a chemical into the spider that causes it to build a unique type of web and sit motionless in the middle. Then, the larva kills the spider host with poison, eats the spider and builds a cocoon in the middle of the web for protection until the adult wasp emerges and the cycle continues.

The Toxoplasma gondii parasite typically spreads between rodents and cats, although the CDC estimates that more than 40 million people are infected with Toxoplasmosis in the U.S. Generally, rodents become infected after consuming contaminated food or water. Once in the rodent intermediate host, the parasite continues to mature and forms cysts in the rodents tissue. Cats become infected after consuming infected rodent tissue. Mature parasites live inside cats. Infected cats also shed the parasite in their feces, where it continues to mature and become ineffective.

The interesting part of the Toxoplasma life cycle is that some of the parasite cysts form in the rodents brain, potentially concentrated in the part of the brain that regulates fear, some researchers believe. This directly affects rodent behavior, making them less fearful of cats. Some evidence suggests they might even be attracted to the smell of cat urine, rather than fearful, increasing their risk of encountering a cat and being consumed. This is ultimately the best outcome for the parasite: for the intermediate rodent host to be consumed so the parasite can get into a cat and complete its life cycle.

Well, this is terrifying!

The good news is that we have evolved with these parasitic species for a very long time, and our immune systems are generally effective at keeping infections in check. We also have many effective medical treatments available to help treat infection and many people in the world today have access to important resources such as clean water and food, sanitation systems and well-constructed houses that help shield them from serious infections.

However, parasites still infect millions of people around the world, so we still have a lot of work to do to make sure all people have access to the resources and infrastructure needed to prevent continual infection and related poor long-term health outcomes.

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Human Behavior

Is secondhand smoke from vapes less toxic than from traditional … – Missouri S&T News and Research

Posted by Peter Ehrhard On October 23, 2023

Dr. Yue-Wern Huangs graduate student, Ta-Chun Lin, (pictured) coded the respiratory system using AI prompts, and the team is applying for a patent for the device. Michael Pierce/Missouri S&T

According to the National Youth Tobacco Survey in 2020, 33.8% of U.S. middle and high school students report that they have been exposed to secondhand e-cigarette aerosols in indoor spaces. But little is known about how inhaling the heated metals, flavorings and other chemicals in the electronic cigarettes affect health.

So what is the adverse health effect in the secondhand smoke from electronic cigarettes? A Missouri S&T toxicologist is working to categorize the physical, chemical and toxicological properties of secondhand smoke created by electronic nicotine delivery systems when indoors.

Dr. Yue-Wern Huang, a professor of biological sciences at Missouri S&T, and his collaborator Dr. Yang Wang, an assistant professor at the University of Miami, have invented a simulated respiratory system, similar to an artificial lung, that inhales and exhales the same way people take in smoke. His graduate student, Ta-Chun Lin, coded the respiratory system using AI prompts to automate the system to simulate human smoke behavior, and the team is applying for a patent for the device.

Despite extensive studies on primary aerosols generated from e-cigarettes, Huang says that the properties of secondhand smoke are insufficiently understood because the aerosols need to be generated by human subjects using devices.

Usually, to look at this sort of health problem you need to conduct human-to-human research, in this case one person smoking the e-cigarette and one person having the smoke blown at them and inhaling it, says Huang. But we can limit the variables by using the simulated respiratory system to mimic human behavior, since every individual has different health backgrounds and statuses. Our simulated respiratory system is coded to inhale and exhale smoke in four seconds, then pause 30 seconds, to enjoy the smoke, similar to how a smoker would take a puff on a cigarette.

Huang says that the projects original idea comes from testing fabrics for COVID-19 facial protection with Wang. The two noticed that filters would block some types of aerosols much better than others.

I thought it was a crazy idea at first to apply that research to smoking, but he ran with it, says Huang. We are now collaborating on the project, with Yang characterize the aerosols themselves and I am investigating the biological aspects of the organic compounds in things like the liquid flavors and nicotine.

Huang hopes to answer questions such as how does secondhand smoke evolve in controlled environments, will secondhand aerosols induce oxidative stress and cytotoxicity, and what are the roles of metals and flavorings in the secondhand smoke contributing the chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases?

Secondhand smoke still contributes to cardiovascular diseases, reduced cell survival, elevated oxidative stress, and alteration of epigenetic events all can be related to lung disease like idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, says Huang. This work has the potential to produce a transformative understanding of the behavior and control of indoor secondhand aerosols and help the public form informed opinions on e-cigarette usage.

About Missouri University of Science and Technology

Missouri University of Science and Technology (Missouri S&T) is a STEM-focused research university of over 7,000 students located in Rolla, Missouri. Part of the four-campus University of Missouri System, Missouri S&T offers over 100 degrees in 40 areas of study and is among the nations top public universities for salary impact, according to the Wall Street Journal. For more information about Missouri S&T, visit http://www.mst.edu.

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Human Behavior

How apocalyptic cults use psychological tricks to brainwash their … – Big Think

Roch Thriault was an intelligent and charismatic religious extremist who, in the 1970s, founded a commune known as the Ant Hill Kids in the woods around Quebec. Thriault had persuaded a dozen or so followers to live with him free of sin. Thriault told them to wait in the commune and obey his every command to survive the end times, which he claimed would occur on February 17, 1978.

When that date came and went, Thriault doubled down. The problem was that the commune was not free enough from sin. Thriault became increasingly violent, abusive, and unhinged. He would make people eat dead mice and feces. He punished people by breaking their legs or cutting off their toes. He tortured and murdered children.

The strange thing about the Ant Hill Kids is that few ever wanted, let alone dared, to leave the cult. Gabrielle Lavalle fled once after being tortured, only to return because she couldnt cope with life outside the cult. As a punishment, Thriault pinned Lavalles hand to a table with a hunting knife and used a cleaver to forcibly amputate her arm. Lavalle fled again and reported Thriault to the police. He was finally arrested and imprisoned in 1989, ten years after he began his horrific doomsday cult.

Why do these doomsday cults attract such unwavering loyalty among their followers? How is it that a person can persuade people to do terrible things to themselves and to others in the name of some bizarre prophesy? Here we look at three common techniques these cults use.

Doomsday groups often will cut off members of the cult, both from the outside world and even from each other. When you surround yourself every moment and every day with the same message and like-minded fanatical individuals, there is little room for doubt or introspection.

We often hear about how dangerous the echo chamber of the online world is. Our fears, biases, and paranoias are reinforced and given fuel by the constant reinforcement of others. Now, multiply and amplify that effect, and you can imagine a cult. In normal, everyday interactions, you run up against competing ideas. Your friend might ask, Are you sure about that? In a cult, there is no dissent and no checks on the fanatical dogma you are given.

When Thriault first started his Quebec cult, he demanded all his followers cut off ties with their families. As the years went on, the Ant Hill Kids were forbidden from talking to each other unless Thriault was there as well. There were no opportunities to question. Other cults, like Heavens Gate and the Branch Davidians, would live in gated communities where access to the outside world was filtered through their leaders.

The reason that people often join doomsday cults in the first place is due to a manipulative trick known as a love bomb. This is when a cult from the leaders down to the newest recruits showers someone with affection, care, and support. Not only is this intended to make people feel welcome and at home, but it subtly and insidiously establishes a dependency relationship. Everything you need or want has to come through the cult. At first, this is generously given. After a while, its given with a few conditions attached. In the end, affection and love are given only to those who behave exactly as they are supposed to.

A notorious example of this was known as flirty fishing, a technique used by the apocalyptic cult The Children of God (or The Family International), in which members would deliberately enter sexual relationships with potential converts. This fishing was a deliberate nod to Matthew 4:19, where Jesus tells his disciples they will become fishers of men. It is thought that the cults women used flirty fishing with over 200,000 potential converts.

Between them, fear and love account for the vast majority of all human behavior. And, if you believe Machiavelli, fear is the stronger of the two. Almost all doomsday cults inspire a degree of fear. At the smallest level, this is the fear of being ostracized. As we have seen, cults take very deliberate care to make sure that their members believe that there is nowhere else they can live. People are dependent on and defined by their cult. Being cut off from that is a great source of fear.

More than that, though, is the very real physical abuse that doomsday cults use to keep people in check. Thriault would make his followers sit on lit stoves, or he would make them sit naked in the cold and whip them. Jim Jones would publicly beat members of his Peoples Temple cult and limit their food supply.

Of course, one of the defining characteristics of doomsday cults is the ever-present fear of death. Often, this is simply the reinforced idea that the world will end soon. For instance, Heavens Gate, led by Marshall Applewhite, isolated its members and used the fear of an imminent spaceship arrival to control their behavior. The Peoples Temple, though, did something all the more traumatic: They would hold suicide drills. Alan Warren, author of Doomsday Cults: The Devils Hostages, describes them like this:

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Jones had paper cups filled with wine passed out to them after telling them they were celebrating. After a few toasts and everyone had imbibed on their cup of wine, Jones told them they had just drunk poison, and within 30 minutes, they would all be dead. Some of the group panicked and started to cry, but most of them just sat in the venue, silent and contemplating their lives. After 45 minutes passed, Jones told them that this had only been a drill, and none of them were going to die. He just wanted to test their loyalties.

Using these techniques, doomsday cults break down your sense of self and any notion of true or false, right or wrong. They then fill these gaps with cult dependency and the offer of salvation. Youre broken; we can fix you. You have nowhere to go; we can offer you a home. No one wants you; we are your family.

In fact, most kinds of emotional manipulation rely on these techniques. If someone can make you feel insecure, incomplete, and inadequate, then they can present themselves as the solution. That happens not just in cults but also in abusive relationships.

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Human Behavior

What We Get When We Give | Harvard Medicine Magazine – Harvard University

From where in the body might kindness flow? Folklore and belief systems far and wide point to the heart. Ancient Egyptian mythology, for example, maintained that the leap to the afterlife required a test. Before the deceased could enter, their heart had to be weighed, placed on a balance under the watchful eyes of the gods.

The dead persons heart wasnt beating, but it wasnt considered dead weight; it held proof of virtue. If the person had lived a life of goodness, their heart would be light as a feather and the gates to the afterlife would swing open. But if their life had been filled with greed, their heart would be heavy. For this person, there would be no welcome to the afterlife; instead, their heart was fed to Ammit, a soul-devouring goddess with the forequarters of a lion, the hindquarters of a hippo, and the head of a crocodile.

This ancient tale is just one example of the hearts symbolic link to goodness. Christian art depicts Jesuss heart aglow, sacred and filled with benevolence. Hindu and Buddhist traditions consider the heart chakra the center of compassion.

And in Dr. Seusss tale, the Grinchs heart is two sizes too small.

With advances in our understanding of anatomy and physiology over the past few centuries, science has shifted the focus for our actions and emotions from the heart to the brain. Yet, in a sense, the ancient Egyptians may have been on to something. Emerging evidence suggests that good deeds can become etched into our bodies, including the cardiovascular system and that our hearts and our health benefit when we are kind to others.

In his book The Healing Power of Doing Good, nonprofit leader Allan Luks quoted survey respondents attempting to articulate the feelings they experienced when doing volunteer work. It makes you explode with energy, one said. Others described a relaxation of muscles that I didnt even realize had been tensed and a euphoric feeling of being zapped by an energy bolt. Luks coined the term helpers high to describe these feelings.

Dopamine is released when we give to others. Scientists have actually witnessed this in the lab.

This sensation has physiological origins. Gregory Fricchione, the Mind/Body Medical Institute Professor of Psychiatry at HMS and director of the Benson-Henry Institute for Mind Body Medicine at Massachusetts General Hospital, describes it as a release of chemical juice. When we help others, he says, neurotransmitters flow up in a tight bundle of axons called the medial forebrain bundle through the subcortex with exit ramps to many of the important structures of the brain the fear-conditioning amygdala, the memory-forming hippocampus, and the motivation-moderating medial prefrontal cortex.

Among these neurotransmitters is dopamine. This feel-good chemical is linked to the brains reward center. And its released when we give to others. Scientists have actually witnessed this in the lab. A few years ago, a small study from an international research collaboration that included scientists from the National Institutes of Health used magnetic resonance imaging to measure brain activity associated with making a charitable donation. The findings, reported in PNAS, suggested that this action engages the mesolimbic system of the brain, triggering a euphoric rush of dopamine in much the same way that anticipating a reward, like money, does.

Numerous other processes may be implicated in the helpers high, says Fricchione: pain-reducing endogenous opioids, endorphins, and perhaps even the neuromodulating chemicals that make up the endocannabinoid system. Then theres oxytocin, the so-called affiliation hormone, which has plentiful receptors in the amygdala, where it helps suppress fear and anxiety.

Best known for its role in inducing contractions during childbirth and in mother-infant bonding, oxytocin is closely linked to empathy and altruistic behavior.

Oxytocin receptors are found throughout the cardiovascular system, including in the heart. The hormone can cause blood vessels to widen, encouraging blood flow and lowering blood pressure. And its been shown to counteract oxidative stress and inflammation, both of which can contribute to atherosclerosis, heart attack, and stroke a hint of how the transient mood boost one gets from helping others may relate to longer-term health.

The molecules rewarding good deeds with good feelings are linked to ancient, deep-rooted instincts. Perhaps their release is an evolutionary nod that whatever we are doing including giving is good for us. But this possibility raises a paradox that has irked evolutionary theorists dating back to Darwin: If the natural world has been shaped by cutthroat competition, what explains our drive to share limited resources with others?

When Stephen Post was a high school student in the late 1960s, there was a focus on the brutishness of human nature. Trendy books like Lord of the Flies and The Territorial Imperative emphasized peoples more selfish and violent tendencies. There was a bias toward cynicism that I feel was unfounded, recalls Post, who, in addition to directing the Center for Medical Humanities, Compassionate Care, and Bioethics at Stony Brook University, heads the board of directors for the Institute for Research on Unlimited Love, a nonprofit that disseminates research on the health benefits of kind giving. To be kind was to be deluded. The thinking was, as the French philosopher Sartre argued, if anybody looks at you with kindness, watch out, because theyre after your wallet. But you really cant explain an awful lot of human behavior with that model in mind.

Since then, Post says, science has helped rewrite the story by highlighting the ubiquity of altruism across cultures throughout human history. For example, researchers have identified an intrinsic propensity in toddlers as young as fourteen months to help others with tasks without being influenced by rewards, encouragement, or threats.

Fricchione sees altruistic pro-social behavior as a logical extension of fundamental mammalian behaviors the drive to nurture offspring and attach to caregivers. It would be strange if evolution only provided us with a brain reward-motivation circuitry that supported gimme, gimme, he says. Of course, we know individuals like that, and they make us angry and frustrated, because we feel they arent behaving as good mammals. Evolution has provided us with the structures and functions that remind us that we survive better by cooperating as a group not only when were seeking social support, but when were giving it.

Post agrees that the key is in community. Group selection theory says that a certain amount of our evolution occurred in groups, he says. So, my group is going to do better to the degree that it exhibits compassion and helping behavior.

In 2010, Nicholas Christakis, MD 89, a sociologist-physician who then held faculty positions at HMS and Harvard University, attempted to map out how groups could become kind. Analyzing data from a series of experiments that used a public goods game, in which participants could dole out money, in the form of tokens, to strangers who were also participants in the experiments, he found that those who received funds from others were more likely to give money to other strangers in a future game. An individuals generosity caused a chain reaction that reverberated out, extending to three degrees of separation. Capturing the pay-it-forward phenomenon in the lab, these findings, published in PNAS, drew widespread interest.

How two people treat each other in one part of the city may relate to how two other people treat each other in another part of the city, says Christakis, who now directs the Human Nature Lab at Yale University. In other words, he says, altruism is contagious. The kindness of individuals cascades, ultimately creating a stronger group that is better equipped to survive.

Christakis sees kindness as one of several pro-social tendencies weve evolved because they are key to maintaining social cohesion, a thesis he describes at length in his 2019 book, Blueprint: The Evolutionary Origins of a Good Society. The flip side of this, he adds, is that we find it stressful to be antagonistic or to be alone. Isolation from a group causes wear and tear on our body, explains Christakis. Indeed, according to the American Heart Association, loneliness and social isolation are associated with a 29 percent increased risk for heart attack or premature death, while emotions like anger and hostility are also considered to be coronary disease risk factors.

To Christakis, those health threats are the kind of inverse of evolutions way of telling us to be kind. We have to be kind to other people so theyll want to be in our group, and we have to support the group so that the whole is greater than its parts.

While the health benefits of kindness are probably not incidental, Christakis adds, they are multifaceted. Its not as straightforward as saying that kindness can completely prevent or cure a disease. Pro-social behaviors like kindness are probably exceedingly complex physiologically, acting upon our bodies in multiple ways, not all of which are understood.

How does this complex mix play out in the modern world? One way to find out is to examine the health outcomes of people who complete measurable acts of altruism. In a 2013 randomized controlled trial published in JAMA Pediatrics, a group of teens was assigned to complete volunteer work. After two months of weekly volunteering, the young people displayed significant decreases in risk factors for cardiovascular disease systemic inflammation, total cholesterol levels, and BMI compared to their non-volunteering peers.

Other research has found lower risk of early death among those who volunteer. A 2020 American Journal of Preventive Medicine study of nearly thirteen thousand volunteers over age 50 who were assessed over a four-year period revealed that those who spent more than a hundred hours per year volunteering had a 44 percent lower risk of mortality compared to those who did not volunteer, even after controlling for factors like stress, health behaviors, and personality traits.

One of the authors of that study is Eric Kim, an affiliate scientist at the Lee Kum Sheung Center for Health and Happiness at the Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health. Kim acknowledges that the physiological mechanisms linked to the helpers high could drive health benefits, but he also highlights additional drivers. Volunteers tend to get more exercise, use preventive health services more often, and experience better social cohesion, for example.

Kim, who is also an assistant professor of psychology at the University of British Columbia, argues that one of the most important effects of volunteering is that it contributes to a persons sense of purpose. If you have a will to live, that will to live will help push you past all kinds of barriers that emerge when youre trying to enact positive health behaviors, he says.

In a study of nearly fourteen thousand retired adults published in 2020 in Preventive Medicine, Kim and colleagues found that those with a higher sense of purpose in life had a lower likelihood of becoming physically inactive, having sleep problems, or developing an unhealthy BMI. Similarly, a 2016 meta-analysis in Psychosomatic Medicine described a lower relative risk for cardiovascular events among people with a higher sense of purpose, even after controlling for variables like conventional cardiovascular risk factors and psychological distress.

People often ask me how they might increase their sense of purpose, says Kim. The answer is, its very difficult. But one of the most scalable ways, that is kind of on the easier side, is volunteering.

Yet even if its relatively easy to get into volunteering, its not just about going through the motions. Kim points to a 2012 study in Health Psychology that found a lower risk for premature mortality among volunteers but there was a caveat. Surveying participants about their motivations, researchers found that those who volunteered for self-oriented reasons had a similar mortality risk as those who didnt volunteer at all. And in the JAMA Pediatrics paper on teen volunteers, the cardiovascular benefits of volunteering were greater among those individuals whose survey responses displayed an uptick in empathy, defined as caring about what happens to other people.

Acts of altruism can also burden the body. Caregiving, for example, can become an immense stressor contributing to myriad health issues. Thats why Post doesnt think that altruism itself is the best medicine. Altruism really conveys an action; it can be habitual, routinized, or externalized, he says. It doesnt get to the kindness. It doesnt get to the heart. Rather, intentional acts of kindness that do not become a burden are key. Post describes what he calls kind giving or kind altruism, an idea related to the Buddhist concept of loving-kindness that meditation works to finesse. Its not how much you do for others, but the kindness you pour into it, he adds.

Researchers found that those who volunteered for self-oriented reasons had a similar mortality risk to those who didnt volunteer at all.

Christakis points out that a propensity for kindness, like any evolved tendency, varies between individuals. But there are ways to cultivate it. He remembers a radio interview he listened to during a drive from Cambridge to the Longwood campus thirty-five years ago. The interviewee, a Buddhist monk, was asked how he might maintain his state of Zen instead of succumbing to road rage if a driver cut him off on the streets of Boston.

I recall that, without missing a beat, the monk said he would imagine that in that car, theres a woman in the back, and the man is driving desperately because shes pregnant and going into labor, says Christakis. So, the monk had trained himself to reframe what was happening around him in the most positive and favorable light.

Post echoes the importance of cultivating a kind disposition that pervades ones life whether youre donating money, volunteering, or just stuck in a traffic jam. The science bears this out. Its how you can actually de-stress. Its how you can be visionary. And its how you can experience joy and happiness, he says.

Its actually pretty simple, Post adds with a shrug. I mean, you can just be kind.

Molly McDonough is the associate editor of Harvard Medicine magazine.

Images: The Trustees of the British Museum (papyrus); John Soares (Fricchione); Evan Mann (Christakis)

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What We Get When We Give | Harvard Medicine Magazine - Harvard University

Human Behavior

Human action pushing the world closer to environmental tipping … – Morung Express

Alison Kentish Inter Press Service

Melting mountain glaciers. Unbearable heat. An uninsurable future. Space debris. Groundwater depletion. Accelerating extinctions. The United Nations University Institute for Environment and Human Security said this week that these six environmental tipping points can have irreversible, catastrophic impacts for people and the planet.

The University released its 2023 Interconnected Disaster Risks Report on October 25. It states that climate change and human behavior are among the drivers of these tipping points.

Human actions are behind this rapid and fundamental change to the planet. We are introducing new risks and amplifying existing ones by indiscriminately extracting our water resources, damaging nature and biodiversity, polluting both Earth and space and destroying our tools and options to deal with disaster risk, it stated.

In terms of accelerated extinction, it states that the current species extinction rate dire at as much as hundreds of times higher than usual due to human action.

It says the life-saving resource groundwater, which is stored in reserves known as aquifers, is a source of water for over 2 billion people and is used overwhelmingly (around 70%) in the agriculture sector. It adds, however, that 21 of the worlds 37 major aquifers are being used faster than they can be replenished. In terms of space debris, while satellites make life easier for humanity, including providing vital information for early warning systems, only about one-quarter of the objects identified in orbit are working satellites. This means that satellites critical for weather monitoring and information are at risk of colliding with discarded metal, broken satellites, and other debris.

According to the report, climate change and increasing extreme weather events have resulted in skyrocketing insurance prices in some parts of the world. The report warns that rising coverage costs could mean an uninsurable future for many.

Another tipping point, unbearable heat, is a cause for major concern. The report states that, currently, around 30 percent of the global population is exposed to deadly climate conditions for at least 20 days per year, and this number could rise to over 70 percent by 2100.

And a warming earth is resulting in glaciers melting at twice the speed of the last two decades.

Report authors say the six risk areas of concern are interconnected, which means that going beyond the brink of any tipping point would heighten the risk and severity of others.

If we look at the case of space debris, it has to do with the practice of putting satellites into our orbit without regard for handling the debris that comes as a result. At present we are tracking around 34,000 objects in our orbit and only a quarter of these are active satellites. Were planning thousands more launches in the coming years. We may reach a point where it gets so crowded in our orbit that one collision can create enough debris to set off a chain reaction of collisions that could destroy our space infrastructure entirely, said Dr. Jack OConnor, Senior Scientist at UNU-EHS and Lead Author of the Interconnected Disaster Risks report.

We use satellites every day to monitor our world. For example, we observe weather patterns that can give us data to generate early warnings. We sometimes take these warnings for granted, but can you imagine if we pass this space debris tipping point and we are no longer able to observe weather patterns? Now a storm is coming to a populated area, and we cant see it coming, he said.

While the report is sobering, its authors are quick to point out that there is hope. Lead Author Dr Zita Sebesvari suggests using the tipping points interconnectivity as an advantage for finding solutions.

These tipping points share certain root causes and drivers. Climate change is cutting across at least four out of the six points. Therefore, decisive climate action and cutting our emissions can help to slow down or even prevent; accelerating extinction, unbearable heat, uninsurable future, and mounting glacier melting, she said.

The report was published just one month before the United Nations Climate Conference (COP28). Dr OConnor says the report can be instructive for policymakers.

I think the report is connected to the COP process. Reducing our emissions is key, and we will need to integrate this with other contributing factors such as global biodiversity loss.

The authors say passing these tipping points is not inevitable. They say the points are meant to spur action, to adequately plan for future risks, and to tackle the root causes of these serious issues.

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Human action pushing the world closer to environmental tipping ... - Morung Express

Human Behavior

Roosters May Recognize Their Reflections in Mirrors, Study Suggests – Smithsonian Magazine

In the new experiment, roosters made fewer alarm calls, meant to warn peers of predators, when placed in front a mirror versus when standing near another rooster. Stefano Spaziani / picture alliance via Getty Images

In a variation of a classic experiment, scientists showed that roosters may recognize their own reflections in a mirror.

This ability is considered a sign of self-awareness in animals. The traditional experiment, which involves placing a mark on an animal and seeing whether they touch it when put in front of a mirror, had only detected self-recognition in a limited number of species. But the new findings suggest more species may be able to discern their reflections than previously thought, per a new paper published Wednesday in the journal PLOS One.

This is exciting, as it moves away from the rigid dogma that the mark test is the only valid test for self-recognition in animals, Nathan Emery, who researches animal intelligence at Queen Mary University of London and did not contribute to the findings, tells New Scientists Jake Buehler.

For the classic mirror test, the mark is placed on a part of an animals face or body that it can only see when in front of a mirror. If the animal then investigates or touches the mark, thats considered an indication that it recognizes the reflection as its own, a sign of self-awareness.

Only a few non-human animals have passed the mirror test, including great apes, bottlenose dolphins, elephants, magpies and crows. But the test could have some limitationsin previous experiments, only some individuals of a species have passed, which could mean the test has a high rate of false negatives, according to the new study. Additionally, training animals with mirrors can improve their test results.

The mirror test also might be less accurate for animals that have different abilities from apes, writes the New York Times Darren Incorvaia. To test other animals, the researchers thought they should incorporate behaviors connected to the creatures day-to-day activities, as they might not all be motivated to touch marks on their bodies, Sonja Hillemacher, a co-author of the study and animal behavior researcher at the University of Bonn in Germany, tells New Scientist.

To adapt the mirror test for roosters, the team decided to measure their alarm calls. When predators are nearby, roosters typically make calls to warn others, but theyll remain silent if theyre alone. The researchers placed one of the birds in front of a mirror and projected a silhouette of a hawk flying above it. If the rooster remained silent, that could indicate it recognized itself and didnt feel the need to vocalize a warning, whereas a call might mean the rooster confused its reflection for a companion.

For comparisons sake, the hawk silhouette was also projected above roosters under some different conditions: when they were alone with no mirror, accompanied by another rooster visible to them in an adjacent compartment and accompanied by another rooster in an adjacent compartment that was blocked from sight by a mirror. They tested 68 roosters in total, and all the birds were tested in multiple setups.

In the experiments, the roosters made significantly fewer warning calls when placed next to a mirror versus next to a rooster they could see, suggesting they recognized the reflection was not another bird. They also made a similar number of calls in the mirror setup as they did when they were alone. In tests with another rooster hidden behind a mirror, the animals also made a low number of calls, suggesting they recognize the presence of other roosters visually, not by their smells or sounds.

The roosters also failed the classic mark version of the mirror test.

Potentially, this study shows strong evidence for self-awareness, Masanori Kohda, a biologist at Osaka Metropolitan University in Japan who did not contribute to the findings, tells the New York Times. However, these results will not be enough to persuade all scientists.

Despite observing the roosters actions, scientists dont know exactly what went through the animals heads. Its equally feasible that they regarded their reflection as an odd [member of their species] mimicking their every move, leading them not to emit an alarm call out of irritation, Hillemacher says to the Guardians Nicola Davis.

Still, the findings suggest self-recognition might not be as exclusive as previously thought.

If ecologically relevant behavior like the alarm call in chicken will be used in the studies on self-awareness in animals, the animals self-awareness will be more correctly judged, Kohda tells the New York Times.

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Human Behavior

Psychological Anime: 12 Series You Should Watch – But Why Tho?

Anime encompasses various genres that span the spectrum from whimsical adventures to epic shonen battles. Within this spectrum exists a subgenre that delves into the human psyche. Psychological anime is a genre of anime that tantalizes the mind and captivates the soul. These intricately woven narratives venture beyond the boundaries of conventional storytelling, exploring the enigmatic labyrinth of human emotions, fears, and desires.

What sets psychological anime apart is its ability to grip viewers, leaving them both bewildered and exhilarated as the stories unfold. Most psychological anime are captivating because of their intricate characters, exploration of the human psyche, and the thought-provoking concepts they present. These anime often feature complex themes and morally ambiguous situations, encouraging viewers to think deeper about the human condition and their beliefs.

The emotional intensity and varying unique art styles further immerse the audience in the storytelling. Additionally, the unconventional narrative structures and the exploration of taboo subjects make psychological anime stand out as engaging and thought-provoking entertainment that resonates with many viewers.

In this article, I will discuss and recommend twelve psychological anime, in no particular order, that I feel are must-watches and stand out amongst the subgenre.

There is no way we can not talk about psychological anime without mentioning Perfect Blue. Perfect Blue is an amazing psychological anime due to its profound character, Mima Kirigoe, complex and suspenseful plot, exploration of identity and obsession, and striking and visual style directed by Satoshi Kon. The film emotionally engages the audience and offers a commentary on the Japanese idol industry while being a masterpiece in the psychological thriller genre, making it an exceptional and influential work in anime and cinema.

Paranoia Agent delves into complex themes like the human psyche, societal pressures, and urban lifes impact on individuals, challenging viewers to contemplate these subjects deeply. The series non-linear narrative structure and interconnected stories add an element of intrigue and mystery that keeps the audience engaged. Furthermore, it provides in-depth character exploration, allowing viewers to connect with multi-dimensional and relatable characters as they grapple with their fears and insecurities. Paranoia Agent excels at building suspense and psychological tension, all while conveying these emotions through a distinctive visual style.

For fans of true crime stories, Erasedis a must-watch psychological thriller. Erasedmasterfully blends crime/mystery and time-travel elements, thus creating a suspenseful and emotionally engaging storyline. The shows protagonist, Satoru Fujinuma, is a well-developed character who is taken on a psychological journey from the future to the past as he attempts to prevent a series of tragic events from happening, including his mothers murder. The series skillfully navigates themes of trauma, regret, and the power of personal growth, offering viewers a thrilling and heartfelt exploration of the human psyche. Its clever use of time-travel and compelling plot twists keeps audiences on the edge of their seats, making Erased a standout in the psychological anime genre.

Death Note is considered a masterpiece in the psychological anime subgenre due to its riveting exploration of the consequences of absolute power and moral ambiguity. The series centers on the intellectual and psychological battle between the brilliant yet morally conflicted protagonist, Light Yagami, and the enigmatic detective, L. It delves deep into complex themes of justice, morality, and the human psyche, engaging viewers in examining the fine line between good and evil. With its intricate plot, well-developed characters, and intense cat-and-mouse dynamics, Death Note is a quintessential psychological thriller in anime.

Death Parade is a unique premise centered on the afterlife and reincarnation. The series explores deceased individuals moral complexities and emotions as they face judgment in a mysterious bar. Each episode features a new story that delves into the deceased characters pasts, inner conflicts, and the choices that lead them to their fates. The series raises questions about the human condition, morality, and the consequences of ones actions while maintaining an air of suspense and mystery. With its well-crafted characters and intricate storytelling, Death Parade offers a captivating and introspective viewing experience in the psychological anime genre.

Psycho-Pass presents a dystopian world where advanced technology can assess an individuals mental state and predict if they have any criminal tendencies. This premise allows for a deep exploration of complex psychological and ethical themes. The series engages viewers in a gripping narrative filled with moral dilemmas, societal critique, and a cast of well-developed characters. As the plot unfolds, it questions the limits of surveillance, the nature of justice, and the impact of such a system on human psychology, making Psycho-Pass a compelling addition to the psychological anime genre.

Tomodachi Game is a great anime series due to its intense focus on psychological manipulation, betrayal, and complex interpersonal dynamics. The story revolves around a group of friends forced into a series of sinister games that test their loyalties, trust, and morality of one another. These high-stakes games create a suspenseful narrative where each characters true nature is revealed and put on display as viewers are kept on the edge of their seats. The series delves into themes of human behavior, morality, and the consequences of choices. It is a thought-provoking addition to the psychological anime genre, with its gripping storyline and character development.

Wonder Egg Priority is a great psychological anime series to watch because it navigates complex themes such as trauma, grief, depression, and the struggles of adolescence with remarkable depth and sensitivity. While also utilizing and exploring elements of Magical Girl anime with various characters. The show features a captivating and emotionally charged storyline where characters confront their inner demons within a dreamlike world, blurring the lines between reality and the subconscious. Its intricate character development, breathtaking animation, and thought-provoking narrative make it a standout in the psychological anime genre, offering a unique and profoundly engaging exploration of the psychological and emotional challenges its diverse cast of characters faces.

Promised Neverland is a tremendous psychological anime series due to its gripping and suspenseful narrative that places a group of intelligent and resourceful orphans in a nightmarish world. The show excels at creating a constant atmosphere of tension and paranoia as the children try to outwit their caretaker to break free. The series explores survival, deception, and the human will to overcome impossible odds while delving into the psychological toll such a situation takes on the young protagonists and the supposed antagonists. The animes ability to keep viewers on the edge of their seats with plot twists and well-developed characters makes it a must-watch psychological anime.

Monster stands out as another masterpiece in the psychological anime subgenre due to its intricate storytelling and exploration of its character. The series follows Dr. Kenzou Tenma, who is faced with moral dilemmas and complex ethical choices as he deals with a brilliant yet sociopathic patient. The narrative delves deep into themes of morality, responsibility, and the darkest aspects of the human psyche. Its methodical pacing and character development create a suspenseful and thought-provoking experience, captivating viewers by exploring the fine line between good and evil.

B: The Beginning combines mystery, crime, and supernatural elements. The series unfolds in a fictional world where an enigmatic killer, Killer B, challenges the brilliant investigator, Keith Flick. The plot intricately weaves together character development, a compelling narrative, and a multi-layered mystery that keeps viewers engaged. It explores themes of identity, morality, and the blurred lines between good and evil, all while maintaining a suspenseful atmosphere that draws the audience into the psychological complexities of the characters.

Of course, as a huge One Piece fan, I had to work this recommendation into this list. One Piece: Baron Omatsuri and the Secret Island slightly departs from the series typical shonen action-adventure format. Instead, this film is more of a psychological thriller exploring power, betrayal, and redemption. The film involves a dark and twisted storyline that boldly departs from the typical wacky and action-packed adventures that Straw Hat Pirates face. The movie effectively conveys a profound sense of despair, exemplified when Luffy believes that for each minute he wastes, one of his crewmates is enduring brutal harm or worse. Thus pushing Luffy to the brink of his psyche.

Whether it is the complex characters, mind-bending twists, or thought-provoking concepts, it is clear that psychological anime has a unique way of gripping the audience from start to finish. If you are curious to know more about these series, I highly recommend watching them for yourself and enjoy the suspenseful psychological ride each has in store.

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Psychological Anime: 12 Series You Should Watch - But Why Tho?

Cell Biology

Virginia Tech and Weizmann Institute of Science tackle cell … – Virginia Tech

In any fight, knowing your enemy is critical to staging a defense. The fight to stop cancer or to accelerate wound healing is no exception. The research teams at Virginia Tech and the Weizmann Institute of Israel, along with partners worldwide, are pursuing a deeper understanding of how cells move and spread throughout a living body.

Professor Amrinder Nain at Virginia Tech builds nanoscale suspended bridges to study cell migration. Professor Nir Gov at the Weizmann Institute develops the theoretical and computational framework for how cells migrate on curved surfaces. Their collaborative study combining state-of-the-art experiments and theory to examine cell coiling on fibers has been published in Nature Communications.

This study follows previous research partnering Gov and Nain for exploration of the inner mechanics of cancer. In that work, Nain and his partners from Virginia Tech, Japan, and Israel studied how a cells biology affects the motion of brain cancer cells. That work produced several novel discoveries, but chemistry and biology alone did not provide a complete picture. Needing a more holistic view of cellular behavior to understand how to halt cancer in its tracks, the team shifted from studying the inside of the cell to its outside, observing how it interacted with its environment.

Nain and Virginia Tech colleague Bahareh Behkam had previously identified a cell behavior called coiling, in which a cell wraps itself around a fiber axis to migrate. They found that coiling was more pronounced in cancerous invasive cells than their non-tumorigenic counterparts. Knowing this, they set out to understand the underlying energetic principles governing that coiling behavior.

Again needing Govs expertise, the team launched a new collaborative study with the team from Israel, aimed at discovering how a cell moves using its protrusions, or arm-like structures that extend outward from the front of a cell's soft body.

Nain and his collaborators knew these arms not only allow the cell to move, but also to grasp its environment and pull itself forward. The trick was to observe them in 3D at sufficient resolution. Virginia Tech team member Christian Hernandez-Padilla devised fiber networks and imaging strategies to capture coiling events. Nain then contacted Hari Shroff and Harshad Vishwasrao at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) to ask about using their lattice-light sheet advanced microscope.

We challenged ourselves to determine if coiling could be clearly observed in 3D for detailed measurements, said Nain. All it took was a cold email to Hari at NIH, to which he was extremely receptive. We were jubilant as Christians imaging data trickled in, showing cells coil on fibers in 3D.

In addition to the NIH, the team also reached out to:

Understanding cell migration requires knowing how cells curve around fibrous ropes the suspended bridges on which they eventually move. Nains expertise includes building nanoscale cellular suspended roadways that are fibrous. Compared to the flat landscape of a Petri dish, these fibers are much closer to the landscape of living tissues. By partnering with other experts, the team set the stage for illustrating how cells move inside a body, which could lead to new strategies to stop cancer cells or accelerate wound healing.

To propel itself, a cells jelly-like body first produces the tentacle-like protrusions. These cellular arms can grab onto things by twisting around fibers in the tissues surrounding them. But this behavior has rarely been studied before.

Recent imaging studies inside the body have shown cancer cells moving along individual fibers and navigating through varying fibrous architectures by reaching out and grabbing the fibers, Nain said. We combined our experiments with Nirs computational models to understand the energetics of coiling. This had never been attempted before, and it challenged our groups.

The group studied coiling on suspended fibers of various diameters, including flat ribbons pioneered in the Behkam lab. Researchers found that as a cell settled onto a fiber, its tentacle wrapped a few times around the fiber, giving the cell a firm grip. Hernandez-Padilla performed imaging at the NIH and developed the framework to quantify 3D coiling events from the voluminous data recorded.

In Israel, postdoctoral fellow Rajkumar Sadhu created a theoretical model that describes how a cell may get its shape and move when outside forces act on its membrane. Govs team found that energy minimization was a major driver. Picture a membrane trying to remain as flat as possible, avoiding sharp corners that would require more energy to navigate.

Complicated shapes such as the coiling result from protein complexes, themselves curved, bending the membrane as it follows their shape. Curved proteins also connect with the cytoskeleton, the structural component giving the cell its shape. The cytoskeleton grows and pushes outward during cellular movement, driving the protrusions.

These forces, arising from energy conservation and cytoskeleton dynamics, are responsible for the coiling. The model correctly predicted that the coiling would cease when the fiber had sharp corners, as in the case of the flat ribbons.

While this balance of energy between movement and cell biology happens in very small ways, it holds enormous implications for the future. Understanding how cells behave in their environment opens the door to understanding cell migration during developmental, disease, and repair biology.

In addition to the scientific advances of this project, Gov commented on the value of this work to the collaborative enterprise.

This collaboration already produced several publications and demonstrates how science is being done today through collaborations between people from different countries, continents, and ethnic and national backgrounds, he said. Beyond the curiosity and love of science, what unites us are the liberal ideals of freedom, human rights, and mutual respect and solidarity between all people.

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Virginia Tech and Weizmann Institute of Science tackle cell ... - Virginia Tech

Cell Biology

Singamaneni to develop advanced protein imaging method – The … – Washington University in St. Louis

Cell-secreted proteins, such as antibodies, hormones and neurotransmitters, play a crucial role in maintaining overall health and well-being. They are also key components in disease research and in developing diagnostic tools and personalized medicines. However, current methods for studying these proteins are limited to observing large groups of cells together, which makes it difficult to discern individual cell behaviors and differences.

With a $450,000 grant from the National Science Foundation, Srikanth Singamaneni, the Lilyan & E. Lisle Hughes Professor in the McKelvey School of Engineering at Washington University in St. Louis, will develop a method called Plasmon-Enhanced Expansion FluoroSpot (PEEFS) to address these limitations. PEEFS combines a very bright fluorescent nanoparticle with expansion microscopy to image secreted proteins with high sensitivity and precision and accurately measure differences between cells.

The project represents a potentially transformative advance, particularly in immunology, oncology, stem cell biology and other life-science disciplines. With PEEFS, researchers will be able to image and quantify protein secretion at extremely high resolutions down to the level of a single cell revealing cell-to-cell variability and interactions and the spatial and temporal dynamics of cell-secreted proteins.

This story was originally published on the McKelvey School of Engineering website.

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Singamaneni to develop advanced protein imaging method - The ... - Washington University in St. Louis

Cell Biology

Vast diversity of human brain cell types revealed in trove of new … – Spectrum – Autism Research News

Cell spectrum: Single-cell techniques identify subtypes of interneurons that have distinct shapes and firing patterns.

Allen Institute for Brain Science

New catalogs detail thousands of cell types that populate the human brain and that of our closest primate relatives. The findings appear in 21 papers published today in Science, Science Advances and Science Translational Medicine.

Its a huge, huge enterprise, says Joshua Sanes, professor of molecular and cellular biology at Harvard University, who was not involved in the work. It really is what translational neuroscience and systems neuroscience, as well as molecular neuroscience, will be building on for the next 10, 20 years.

The new work used single-cell molecular approaches to identify more than 3,000 distinct neuronal and non-neuronal cell types within the developing and the adult human brain. Individual studies also compare cell composition across samples from 75 people and eight cortical regions, and across humans and four non-human primate species.

This effort represents a step toward a single-cell atlas of the human brain and begins to provide information about what might make us uniquely human at the cellular level, says Andrea Beckel-Mitchener, deputy director of the U.S. National Institutes of Healths BRAIN Initiative, which funded the project.

The resulting datasets, which are available online, are the product of five years of research by more than 250 researchers who make up the BRAIN Initiative Cell Census Network (BICCN), a project that launched in 2017 to catalog mammalian brain cell types. In 2021, the BICCN team unveiled detailed atlases of the motor cortex in human, macaque and marmoset brains. And earlier this year, BICCN scientists posted preprints that establish the most complete cell atlases of the mouse brain to date.

The datasets provide researchers with benchmarks for typical cell composition across humans, non-human primates and other mammals, says Ed Lein, senior investigator at the Allen Institute for Brain Science in Seattle, Washington, and a researcher on multiple papers in todays collection. And in the future, they could help scientists select the best model organisms for a given study and even identify cells implicated in disease, he says.

The BICCN identified distinct cell types based on a variety of features, including their individual patterns of gene expression (the transcriptome) and patterns of tags on DNA (the epigenome), combined with other measures, such as cell morphology and physiology.

Some scientists have long questioned whether single-cell transcriptomics could distinguish cells in ways that are as useful as morphology or physiology have been for decades, Sanes says its biology; its complicated. But the new work suggests that identifying cells by their molecular components offers a complementary, if not always overlapping, way of categorizing cells throughout the brain, he says.

There is utility in describing the cells gene expression, agrees Jason Shepherd, associate professor of neurobiology at the University of Utah in Salt Lake City, who was not involved in the new work. The subsequent interpretation of what that means is where it starts to get a little muddy.

Even researchers involved in the BICCN were initially uncertain about whether their single-cell techniques, which were originally used in animals, would translate to people, particularly at a large scale. Anything from difficulty in handling the samples of human tissue to unforeseen species differences could have thwarted the work, Lein says.

But the new work confirms that single-cell methods can reveal new insights about the cell composition of our own species, Lein says. Its really quite remarkable. The diversity that we all thought was there, really is there. That diversity is highest in the midbrain and hindbrain, the new work shows areas that have been studied less extensively than the cerebrum.

Throughout the brain, cell composition relates to function, the new work suggests. The same 24 major cell types appear consistently across all eight areas of the cerebral cortex that Lein and his colleagues sampled in one of the new studies, but these cells proportion changes from region to region. One brain region that stands out for its unusual composition is the primary visual cortex, which the new work shows has distinct subtypes of excitatory and inhibitory cells. That likely reflects the fact that the primate brain is wildly specialized for visual inputs, Lein says.

Different people also tend to share all the same brain cell types but vary in how those cells particularly excitatory neurons and glia express genes, according to another study, which examined live tissue samples collected from 75 people as they underwent surgery to treat various brain conditions. Most of that variation is not explained by demographic factors such as age or sex but instead may stem from things such as life experience, says study investigator Trygve Bakken, assistant investigator at the Allen Institute for Brain Science.

Another new study revealed that children with early-life brain inflammation have changes to gene expression in two types of inhibitory neurons within their cerebellum. Many of the affected genes have been linked to autism, pointing to a potential place of convergence for some forms of the condition.

Some of the new papers also document cell-type composition across non-human primates, including macaque monkeys and marmosets. These studies, coupled with the BICCNs mouse atlases, offer a way to assess which cell types are shared across evolution and which are specific to humans findings that can help researchers select the best model organisms for a given study.

This really opens the door to ask, Can we translate findings from model organisms to humans? Bakken says.

Other studies, which document how brain cells change throughout the early stages of development, can help guide researchers who seek to model human development using organoids, Lein says.

The scale of the project is unprecedented in neuroscience, Beckel-Mitchener says. The only comparable biology program is the Human Gene Project, she says.

Moving forward, the network aims to fill out the contours of the prototype atlas. Last year, it transitioned to its next phase, called the BRAIN Initiative Cell Atlas Network. Were ramping up to hundreds of donors across a much broader collection of ages and ancestries, Beckel-Mitchener says.

Ultimately, the goal is that these atlases will provide a good understanding of what the normal brain actually looks like, Lein says. When used as a reference, the atlases can serve as a basis for understanding which cells are affected in disease, and when. That would enable researchers to ask questions that are much more directed and much more data driven when deciding which brain areas to study for a given condition, says Tomasz Nowakowski, associate professor of anatomy, psychiatry and neurological surgery at the University of California, San Francisco, who led one of the studies published today.

Theres a lot of work to do, says Seth Ament, associate professor of psychiatry at the University of Maryland School of Medicine in Baltimore, who worked on the study of inflammation in the cerebellum. But thats the mark of any important project, right?

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Vast diversity of human brain cell types revealed in trove of new ... - Spectrum - Autism Research News