An Exclusive Q&A with DNA Genetics’ Don and Aaron – Cannabis Business Times

Industry veteran Mel Frank speaks with the duo about genetics, the international seed market, the hype around THC and more.

This article originally appeared in the March 2017 print edition ofCannabis Business Times. To subscribe, clickhere.

DNA Genetics exemplifies the modern cultivation business one that was attracted to the industry out of a love for the plant and now carefully balances the culture of the cannabis community with a hugely successful, global business. Since opening in 2003, the company, owned by brothers Don and Aaron, has grown to approximately 40 employees and has operations in California, Amsterdam, Canada and Chile.

DNA has a track record with which few can compete including more than 150 awards for their genetics and induction into the High Times Seed Bank Hall of Fame in 2009. And recently, the duo has been forging a new track, not only with their thriving seed company, but through a consulting business that has already landed them a partnership with Canadian cannabis titan Tweed, Inc. (a subsidiary of Canopy Growth Corporation).

We have added an award-winning global powerhouse in breeding and genetics, acclaimed for the unique strain profiles their cannabis possesses," said Tweed President Mark Zekulin in a press release announcing the partnership in October 2015. According to the release, The only place where Canadian patients will be able to acquire true, certified DNA strains grown to DNA standards will be Tweed.

Here, Don and Aaron are interviewed by one of the most well-known names in cannabis cultivation, Mel Frank. Frank has nearly five decades of cultivation experience, is an internationally recognized marijuana book author, publisher and photographer, and has been contributing original articles to cannabis magazines since 1976.

In this revealing interview, Frank talks with Don and Aaron about the origins of and current state of the international seed market, genetics and the future of patents in the industry, why the hype around THC is misguided, an announcement the team makes publicly here for the first time, and more.

To read the full article inCannabis Business Times'March edition, clickhere.

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An Exclusive Q&A with DNA Genetics' Don and Aaron - Cannabis Business Times

Cancer Genetics, Inc. closed with a change of 16.42% in the Previous Trading Session – Free Observer

Cancer Genetics, Inc. (CGIX) belongs to the Healthcare sector with an industry focus on Medical Laboratories & Research, with Mr. Panna Sharma as Chief Exec. Officer, Pres and Director.

The company has been one of the biggest innovators in Medical Laboratories & Research employing approximately 223 full time employees.

Key Statistics:

Financials:

The company reported an impressive total revenue of 27.05 Million in the last fiscal year.

If you look at the companys income statement over the past years, you will see that the company is constantly posting gross profit: In 2014, CGIX earned gross profit of 1.75 Million, in 2015 3.94 Million gross profit, while in 2016 Cancer Genetics, Inc. (CGIX) produced 9.95 Million profit.

Currently the shares of Cancer Genetics, Inc. (CGIX) has a trading volume of 1.87 Million shares, with an average trading volume of 970625 shares with shares dropping to a 52 week low of $1.1 on Nov 4, 2016, and the companys shares hitting a 52 week high on Mar 24, 2017 of $3.95.

Looking at the current price of the stock and the 52 week high and low, it suggests that the stock is likely to go Down in the future.

Earnings per share (EPS) breaks down the profitability of the company on a single share basis, and for Cancer Genetics, Inc. the EPS stands at -0.23 for the previous quarter, while the analysts predicted the EPS of the stock to be -0.28, suggesting the stock exceeded the analysts expectations.

Another critical number in evaluating a stock is P/E or the price to earnings ratio.

The TTM operating margin is -65.9%. The return on invested capital at -54.5%, which is good, compared to its peers.

The Free Cash Flow or FCF margin is 0%, which means that the business has healthy reserve funds for contingencies that may arise.

Stock is currently moving with a positive distance from the 200 day simple moving average of approximately 103.68%, and has a solid year to date (YTD) performance of 188.89% which means the stock is constantly adding to its value from the previous fiscal year end price.

Future Expectations:

The target price for Cancer Genetics, Inc. (CGIX) is $6/share according to the consensus of analysts working on the stock, with an expected EPS of $-0.22/share for the current quarter.

The companys expected revenue in the current quarter to be 7.1 Million, seeing a projected current quarter growth of 53.2%, and per annum growth estimates over the next 5 year period of around 40%.

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Cancer Genetics, Inc. closed with a change of 16.42% in the Previous Trading Session - Free Observer

Genetics of Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) – News-Medical.net

Over the last decade, the inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) - Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis (UC) have been key areas of research into complex disease genetics.

More than 100 genes have been identified that increase the risk of these conditions developing, confirming that a strong genetic element is involved. Although scientists still do not understand exactly what causes Crohns and UC to develop, it is known that the bowel inflammation tends to arise in response to bacteria in the gut among people who are genetically pre-disposed to the conditions.

In 2006, all 22,000 genes of the human genome across 6,000 individuals were scanned by researchers. As reported in Nature Genetics, the scientists said that around 50% of the people had Crohns disease and the remainder did not, showing that genetics is a key element in the development of these diseases. They also said that identifying the predisposing genes could lead to the development of new treatment approaches. Several initiatives are now in place to use todays scientific technologies and knowledge to help achieve this goal and two of these are described in more detail below.

The Crohns & Colitis Foundation (CCFA) has launched a project called the IBD Genetics Initiative, which involves leading scientists in the field who hope to use science and technology to discover new ways of curing or preventing the development of Crohn's disease.

To date, 165 IBD-associated genes have been identified, but their functions are not yet understood. The goals of the IBD Genetics Initiative are to:

So far, the initiative has led to the discovery of at least two gene pathways that can already be targeted using existing drugs, with one already having been confirmed as safe for use in humans.

In a world-wide collaboration over recent years, the IIBDGC has been gathering large datasets from a wide variety of countries in order to discover IBD-associated genes and also explore what the associations mean. The consortiums latest article involved twelve groups of research analysts who used advanced statistical methods to identify patterns across the genes.

This provided new understanding about IBD risk that could not be provided by single locus analysis. Specifically, the research led to the finding that, as well as IBD genetically resembling other immune conditions, it is especially closely associated with particular inflammatory disorders such as psoriasis. The risk of IBD is not just associated with immune system changes, but with a certain subset of immune cells and signals. The risk is not only associated with susceptibility to bacterial infection, but in particular, with susceptibility to bacteria from the family that includes tuberculosis and leprosy.

The IIBDGC says that times have changed compared to five years ago, with disease gene discovery no longer being the challenging aspect; the focus of future studies should be to examine the new associations found and transform any findings into a deeper understanding of biology.

Reviewed by Susha Cheriyedath, MSc

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Genetics of Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) - News-Medical.net

The Ida Hudson Callaway Building: LC’s New Beacon of Pride – The Hilltop News

By Meagan Lennon

Many LaGrange College student s, myself included, were skeptical when construction first began. I recall thinking, Why do we need a new science building? The current one is perfectly fine.

Little did I know that I would be so wrong.

Dr. Arthur Sikora used a chemical reaction to cut the ribbon at the grand opening.

With its spacious laboratories, state-of-the-art technology, and modern design, the new Ida Callaway Hudson Lab Science Building provides the best accommodations for students and professors alike. Comparatively, the memories of the old building seem like ancient history since the new building has been completed. As Dr. William Paschal, professor of anatomy and physiology, neurobiology, and embryology, says, We no longer have to share space. There is so much more room to maneuver and see.

In the old building, most of the classes had to share the same lab space, but now every class has its own lab. The lab spaces in the old building were crowded, and they could hardly fit an entire class. However, in the Ida, each lab space can fit up to twenty-four students with space to spare.

We now have neat equipment that is typically found at research universities, and we dont have to share.

Everything in the new building is state-of-the-art and perfect for the budding scientist. According to Dr. Nickie Cauthen, the science department chair and professor of genetics, biology, and molecular biology, We now have neat equipment that is typically found at research universities, and we dont have to share.

Dr. William Paschal leads his lab on the first day of school.

In the chemistry labs, each lab group has a dedicated drawer for beakers, test tubes, and other equipment, and lab partners can safely conduct experiments without worrying about volatile gases under the new hoods. In the anatomy lab, each table has its own snorkel so the lab does not reek of the dissection specimen.

Professors can also use special microscopes to project specimens onto the projection screen. This addition makes it easier for students to understand what the professor is talking about during the lecture or the laboratory session.

Although the Ida is truly something to marvel, its space and its technology are not its sole captivating features. It was built with professors and students in mind. Students can use multiple study rooms and we love being able to write on the whiteboard walls that separate the classrooms from the offices. As Dr. Cauthen states, When we were the old building, it was rare to see students outside of class times. But now? The students want to hang around.

The whiteboard walls are directly outside of the offices, so if we are struggling with a concept, we can draw out what we understand and ask the professor any questions. I have taken advantage of the whiteboard feature many times, and it is perhaps one of my favorite things about the Ida.

When we were the old building, it was rare to see students outside of class times. But now? The students want to hang around.

Dr. Cauthen states, We are hoping that the new building will draw in new students.

Meagan Lennon, 19, is a sophomore biology major.

The building itself is more than equipped to handle incoming students because, as Dr. Cauthen claimed, We dont have to worry about overcrowding, and we have room to grow.

Students of all majors can appreciate the spacious hallways and the technologically advanced lab rooms. Professors can provide students with extra help on the whiteboard walls that line the hallways. And the extra study space is more accessible to groups. The Ida Callaway Hudson Lab Sciences Building stands as a beacon of pride on our historic and prestigious campus.

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Matthew Morrison Joins ‘Grey’s Anatomy’ See On-Set Pics and Video – Variety

Matthew Morrison has been cast onGreys Anatomy.

ABC confirmedtoVarietythat the Glee alum is joining the medical drama in aguest role. However, the network kept details on his character and storyline under wraps.

Morrisonwas recently spotted in on-set pictures, which surfaced on a Twitter fan account this past weekend. In the photos, hes filming with Greys Anatomy vet Justin Chambers, plus star and director Kevin McKidd. The images depict Morrison and Chambers on a street and near a cab.

Morrison also teased a new gig on his Instagram story, but did not specify the new show. He did say thathed be playing a character named Dr. Paul Stadler.

Actors Justin Chambers & Matthew Morrison with director Kevin McKidd on the set of #GreysAnatomy episode 13.23, wrote one fan account on Saturday, with a picture of the two actors.

Things we learned today: #GreysAnatomy ep 13.23 has some medical event that Alex & Dr. Paul Stadler played by Matthew Morrison go to, wrote the same fan account on Friday.

Morrisonis best known for starring on Glee for its entire run, which ended in 2015. He recently had a memorable guest role on TV Lands Younger. He also had an arc on The Good Wife. He is repped by CAA.

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Matthew Morrison Joins 'Grey's Anatomy' See On-Set Pics and Video - Variety

Anatomy Of A Decision Series Highlights Skills Necessary To Climb To The Top Of The Corporate Ladder – Benzinga

GLG recently produced a series of videos that include interviews with a number of business leaders who have different backgrounds in the business world. GLG, the worlds leading membership network for professional learning, focused its Anatomy of a Decision series on the decision-making process that these leaders used to make some of the most difficult choices of their careers.

Each of the participants in the video series offered advice about how future leaders should approach critical decisions. Several of the participants also discussed ways they wish they had done things differently throughout their careers as well. Heres a rundown of some of the highlights from the five-part series.

For former Pfizer Inc. (NYSE: PFE) CEO Jeff Kindler, the key to his business success was an open mind.

I started saying I should be open to whatever comes along, Kindler said. And that led me down all kinds of different paths I never would have predicted.

Former New York Times executive editor Jill Abramson said preparation and confidence go a long way in the business world.

When you have to confront powerful people about unpleasant things that they dont want to talk about like their personal finances or their campaign finances, you develop a kind of calm steadiness that allows you not to get horribly nervous, Abramson said.

Pamela Thomas-Graham, former Credit Suisse Group AG (ADR) (NYSE: CS)board member, CEO of CNBC and the first ever African-American partner at McKinsey & Co., had some advice for anyone who is subjected to discrimination in the workplace. She said anger is often not constructive, but direct, open dialogue can be.

You can be angry and you can be frustrated, but if you really want to change peoples behavior you have to meet them where they are, she said.

Jeffrey Brenzel, dean of undergraduate admissions at Yale, said companies often underestimate the importance of the hiring process.

Its not who you fire, its who you hire that is going to make the difference between success and failure for your company, Brenzel said. And how those decisions are made and whos making them and what the process is for making those decisions I think could not conceivably be more critical.

Jake Sullivan, a former advisor to former President Barack Obama, discussed the importance of removing irrational emotions from his decision-making process when discussing the Iranian nuclear deal with the president.

Being able to make that decision to recommend to the president that we go ahead and do this deal required stepping back from the anxiety, the emotion, the nerve-wracking idea that maybe we were going to screw this thing up and actually systematically running a cost benefit analysis, he said.

Collectively, these five leaders have decades of experience at the highest level of the business world. Despite the fact that all of them have unique backgrounds and areas of expertise, the themes of adaptability, preparation, discipline, respect, and critical thinking were common among their discussions. In order to have a chance at reaching the pinnacle of success in any field, young entrepreneurs and aspiring executives should focus on honing these universal skills on a daily basis.

Related Links:

Anatomy Of A Decision, Part 1: The C-Suite

Anatomy Of A Decision, Part 2: The Newsroom

Anatomy Of A Decision, Part 3: Minorities In The Boardroom

Anatomy of a Decision, Part 4: The Admissions Office

Anatomy Of A Decision, Part 5: The West Wing

Posted-In: Anatomy of a Decision Barack Obama GLGNews Education Media Interview General Best of Benzinga

2017 Benzinga.com. Benzinga does not provide investment advice. All rights reserved.

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Anatomy Of A Decision Series Highlights Skills Necessary To Climb To The Top Of The Corporate Ladder - Benzinga

Anatomy of a Goal: Ola Kamara’s Chip – Massive Report

Welcome to the first Anatomy of a Goal, where each week we dissect one goal (or near goal) from the previous weeks Columbus Crew SC match.

For week four on the 2017 MLS Season, we take a look at Ola Kamaras 19th minute chipped goal that put Crew SC up 2-1 as part of the 3-2 win over the Portland Timbers on Saturday.

Heres a look at the finish from the Columbus forward.

First, lets set the scene. Up to this point in the game, Crew SC had dominated possession while Portland looked to defend, high press, and counter. The Timbers first goal came off of a direct attack and the Black & Golds first goal came from a Justin Meram rebound on a corner kick.

The build up to Kamaras chip goal starts with an Alvas Powell throw-in.

In the above image, you can see that Portland has five players in position to receive the throw-in (Federico Higuain is pointing to the sixth man/safety valve). Realistically, Powell has three options: Fanendo Adi, Dairon Asprilla, and Diego Valeri. In what looks like a designed play, Powell makes the deep throw to Adi who immediately heads the ball in the direction of Valeri.

Jonathan Mensah is easily able to cut off the headed ball and makes a simple pass to Artur, who immediately turns the ball upfield.

The image above shows where this goal really begins. If you notice Higuain, his head is turned downfield rather than looking at Artur. At this moment, hes aware that Powell has not tracked back on defense and Zarek Valentin is pushed far up the field watching Ethan Finaly, leaving Kamara downfield and marked only by the Timbers center backs.

As Artur dribbles upfield, still un-pressured by Diego Chara, Higuain continues to look at Kamaras positioning. Higuain knows exactly where Kamara is at all times during this play.

Here, you can see that Chara begins to pressure Artur, and Artur can see two options: Harrison Afful or Finlay. Artur opts for the pass upfield to Finaly but makes his decision and pass too late, allowing Chara to deflect the ball right into the path of Valeri.

Valeri heads the ball back into the general direction of Chara and Sebastin Blanco. However, Afful makes a great hustle play to out-jump Chara (who is two inches taller than Afful), and head the ball downfield in the direction of Higuain. If Afful gets beaten by Chara, the ball likely makes its way to Blanco, who only has to beat Jonathan to get in on goal.

Above, Higuain is waiting for the ball that Afful was able to put right in his path. He knows the ball is going to get to him so hes looking to see EXACTLY where Kamara is. Higuain likely notices that Powell is still not back on defense and Kamara is only marked by the two center backs. You can just see Valentins shadow above Higuains head. Valentin has arguably moved too far up the field to track Finaly and provide an outlet pass.

Higuain receives the ball on a bad bounce, maybe controlling the ball with his arm, but hes already made his mind up to send a long ball into the path of the sprinting Kamara. Higuain controls the ball, and fires a second-touch-volley down the field and over the head of Kamara and the Portland center backs.

This image shows exactly how open Kamara was whenever Higuain turned his head in the seconds leading up to this pass. The forward is only marked by the two center-backs. Kamara splits the center-backs, and puts his run close enough to Lawrence Olum that Olum doesnt have the speed to get in front of Kamara.

Kamara can now see that hes going to get the first touch on the ball. The decision he has to make is whether to hit a one-touch-volley over the head of Jake Gleeson, who he can see is very far off of his line, or to take a touch and try to beat Gleeson 1 v 1. Both Olum and Roy Miller peel off of Kamara to try and get into a goal-side position. Olum immediately heads toward the goal, while Miller makes a bent run, trying to coax Kamar into a second touch. On the replay, it looks like Gleeson isnt sure whether to come out or stay back. Both defenders head toward the goal so Gleeson stays out.

By this point, Kamara has decided to knock a one-time chip over Gleeson before Olum or Miller can get in position for a clearance. Kamara is running toward a ball that is traveling left and away from the goal. On this shot, he displays excellent control of his body. Kamara maintains his run away from the goal, slowing down only long enough to make sure he connects with the ball. Then, he expertly uses his left foot (dont forget, Ola is right-footed) to redirect the ball over Gleeson and into back of the net.

Findings:

And that, is this weeks Anatomy of a Goal. This one showed some pretty impressive stuff from Crew SC and ultimately played a large part in three points at home.

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Anatomy of a Goal: Ola Kamara's Chip - Massive Report

Scoop: GREY’S ANATOMY on ABC – Thursday, April 13, 2017 – Broadway World

On the episode In the Air Tonight Meredith and Nathan have to confront their feelings when they are are stuck sitting next to each other on a plane, on Greys Anatomy, THURSDAY, APRIL 13 (8:00-9:01 p.m. EDT), on The ABC Television Network.

Greys Anatomy stars Ellen Pompeo as Meredith Grey, Justin Chambers as Alex Karev, Chandra Wilson as Miranda Bailey, James Pickens Jr. as Richard Webber, Kevin McKidd as Owen Hunt, Jessica Capshaw as Arizona Robbins, Jesse Williams as Jackson Avery, Sarah Drew as April Kepner, Caterina Scorsone as Amelia Shepherd, Camilla Luddington as Jo Wilson, Jerrika Hinton as Stephanie Edwards, Kelly McCreary as Maggie Pierce, Jason George as Ben Warren, Martin Henderson as Nathan Riggs and Giacomo Gianniotti as Andrew DeLuca.

Greys Anatomy was created and is executive produced by Shonda Rhimes (Scandal, How to Get Away with Murder), Betsy Beers (Scandal, How to Get Away with Murder) and Mark Gordon (Saving Private Ryan). William Harper, Stacy McKee, Zoanne Clack and Debbie Allen are executive producers. Greys Anatomy is produced by ABC Studios.

In the Air Tonight was written by Stacy McKee and directed by Chandra Wilson.

Greys Anatomy is broadcasted in 720 Progressive (720P), ABCs selected HTV format, with 5.1-channel surround sound.

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Scoop: GREY'S ANATOMY on ABC - Thursday, April 13, 2017 - Broadway World

Anatomy and physiology of ageing 3: the digestive system – Nursing Times

Download a print-friendly PDF file of this article here

Yamni Nigam is an associate professor of biomedical science; John Knight is a senior lecturer in biomedical science; both at the College of Human Health and Science, Swansea University.

Ageing can have drastic effects on the functions of the digestive system. One of these is reduced appetite due to changes in hormone production and analteration in smell and taste. Physiological changes in pharyngeal skills and oesophageal motility may lead to dysphagia and reflux. In the intestines, several factors contribute tochanges in the regular gut microbial fauna, making older people more prone to bloating, pain and bacterial infection. There is also a drastic age-associated rise in the incidence of several gut pathologies including cancer of the colon. This third article in our series on the anatomy and physiology of ageing explores the digestive system.

Nigam Y, Knight J (2017) Anatomy and physiology of ageing 3: the digestive system. Nursing Times [online]; 113: 4, 54-57.

The main role of the digestive system is to mechanically and chemically break down food into simple components that can be absorbed and assimilated by the body. The gut and accessory organs also play an important role in the elimination of indigestible food components, bile pigments, toxins and excess salts. The system performs a range of anatomically and physiologically distinct functions, each of which is affected differently by ageing (Fig 1).

2

Fig 1. Age-related changes to the gastrointestinal tract

Food intake diminishes with age due to a range of complex reasons that lead to reduced appetite. These include physiological changes and changes in psychosocial and pharmacological circumstances.

Appetite is controlled mainly by sensors in the gastrointestinal tract, which detect the physical presence of food and prompt the GI tract to produce a range of hormones. These are released before, during and after eating, and control eating behaviours, including the amount consumed. They include:

Table 1 highlights the changes that occur in the production of these hormones with advancing age; the overall result is reduced appetite.

ta

Table 1. Age-related changes in appetite hormones

We choose what we eat based on the smell and taste of food; however, the number of olfactory receptors decreases with age and the sense of smell diminishes. US research suggests that about half of people aged 65-80 and around three-quarters of those aged over 80years have a demonstrable loss of smell (Doty and Kamath, 2014).

This decreased sense of smell can have significant safety implications; for example, a disproportionately high number of older people die from accidental gas poisoning. It can also be an early sign of neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinsons or Alzheimers disease (Httenbrink et al, 2013). Olfactory loss including loss of the ability to discriminate between smells may also be a consequence of age-related skull bone growth that results in a pinching of sensory nerve fibres.

Most older people experience regional taste deficits in the mouth. However, what is perceived as a taste defect (gustatory dysfunction) is often a primary defect in olfaction although some studies suggest that age-related changes in the taste cell membranes diminish the sense of taste (Seiberling and Conley, 2004).

The gradual reduction in smell and taste, and therefore in appetite, leads to diminished food intake, possibly resulting in weight loss and malnutrition, while the inability to taste and enjoy food can lead to anxiety. The ability to taste salt also diminishes (Mauk, 2010) and may lead to increased consumption of salt-rich meals, which can aggravate health conditions such as hypertension. Older people should be encouraged to use herbs or mild spices in their dishes, rather than salt, if they need to add flavour.

The lips, tongue, salivary glands and teeth all play a role in chewing, breaking down and swallowing food. Age-related shrinkage of the maxillary and mandibular bones and reduction in bone calcium content cause a slow erosion of the tooth sockets, leading to gum recession and an increased risk of root decay (Pradeep et al, 2012). People without teeth (edentulous) or who have poorly fitting dentures may find chewing difficult and, therefore, eat less and become malnourished. Alternatively, they may choose highly refined, easy-to-chew foods, thereby consuming less dietary fibre; this will affect their bowel function, and may cause problems such as constipation.

A dry mouth (xerostomia) is common among older people; Smith et al (2013) showed that healthy subjects aged 70years and over produced less saliva than younger people. However, while the number of tongue acinar (saliva-producing) cells decreases with age, there is conflicting evidence as to whether the volume of saliva produced also decreases. Xerostomia can be an adverse effect of medication or can result from diseases such as diabetes. Although it is common among older people generally, it is more likely to occur in those who are taking more than four prescription drugs per day (Yellowitz and Schneiderman, 2014). Drug categories that may cause xerostomia include:

Having formed a bolus of food, the mouth prepares to swallow. The bolus reaches the posterior pharyngeal wall and the musculature contracts around it; swallowing occurs and food travels through the upper oesophageal sphincter into the oesophagus. With age, the muscular contractions that initiate swallowing slow down, increasing pharyngeal transit time (Nikhil et al, 2014). This may lead to swallowing difficulties (dysphagia), which can increase the risk of choking and the feeling that food is stuck in the throat. Up to 26.7% of people aged 76years and over experience dysphagia (Baijens et al, 2016).

In general, the motor function of the GI tract is relatively well preserved in healthy older people, but there are significant changes in oropharyngeal and oesophageal motility. In the very old, impaired oesophageal motility is common; oesophageal peristalsis weakens with age (Gutschow et al, 2011) and peristalsis may no longer be triggered by each swallow. Both upper and lower oesophageal sphincters lose tension; the lower one in particular undergoes a reduction in pressure, resulting in problems such as dysphagia, reflux and heartburn (Grassi et al, 2011). In addition, the gag reflex is absent in 43% of older people (Davies et al, 1995).

The stomach acts as a reservoir for food, allowing us to eat at regular intervals. With age, it cannot accommodate as much food, primarily because its wall loses elasticity.

As a normal part of digestion, the stomach secretes gastric juice containing hydrochloric acid and pepsin. Although, in general, older and younger people produce gastric acid at a similar rate (Merchant et al, 2016), acid hyposecretion occurs in 10-20% of older people versus <1% of younger subjects (Gidal, 2007). This can compromise the bioavailability of certain drugs, including vitamin B12, and lead to disorders such as chronic atrophic gastritis.

There is also an age-related reduction in mucus-producing goblet cells, which results in reduced secretion of protective mucus and therefore a weakened mucosal barrier. Consequently the stomachs lining becomes more prone to damage (Saber and Bayumi, 2016).

Gastric bicarbonate (HCO3-) and mucus normally provide an alkaline layer to defend the stomach lining against gastric juices; however, research suggests that advancing age is associated with a decline in HCO3- secretion (Saber and Bayumi, 2016). The protective prostaglandin content of mucus also decreases with age, making older people more prone to gastromucosal injury such as lesions and ulcers, especially after ingesting non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, which are commonly taken by older people. However, proton pump inhibitors (PPIs), which suppress acid production, are often prescribed alongside NSAIDs (Fujimori, 2015).

Finally, gastric emptying slows down with age; this means food remains in the stomach for longer, prolonging satiation and reducing appetite (Nieuwenhuizen et al, 2010).

The main function of the small intestine is to digest and absorb food. It produces a range of digestive enzymes, supported by the pancreas and liver.

Absorption of nutrients occurs in the jejunum and ileum, the second and third regions of the small intestine. The lining of the small intestine is shaped into microscopic folds (villi), which increase the surface area available for absorption. Although an age-related reduction in villus height has been shown, the impact on nutrient uptake does not seem to be clinically significant (Drozdowski and Thomson, 2006).

There is evidence that the production of the enzyme lactase decreases with age, making older people more prone to lactose intolerance (Di Stefano et al, 2001); lactase is created following instruction fromthe LCT gene, which becomes less active over time.

Populations of certain bacteria that reside in the small intestine have been shown to increase as we age, leading to bloating, pain and decreased absorption of nutrients such as calcium, folic acid and iron. This can have a negative effect on health. In addition, PPIs have been shown to provoke bacterial overgrowth in the small intestine, which may exacerbate NSAID-induced small intestinal injury and foster the development of systemic conditions, including inflammatory bowel disease, diabetes and autoimmune diseases (Fujimori, 2015).

Peyers patches small nodules of lymphatic tissue that form part of the guts immune defence system monitor populations of intestinal bacteria to prevent the growth of pathogens. However, there is a gradual reduction in the number of Peyers patches in the small intestine, accompanied by a gradual loss of lymphoid follicles (Merchant et al, 2016); this can result in an uncontrolled growth of resident micro-flora.

As already mentioned, oesophageal peristalsis slows with age, but research has recently shown that small intestinal transit time does not seem to be affected (Fischer and Fadda, 2016). In contrast, there is an age-related slowing down of colonic transit caused by a decline in propulsive activity of the colon, whichis associated with a reduction in neurotransmitters and neuroreceptors (Britton and McLaughlin, 2013). This causes a delay in colonic transit of waste, leading to constipation (Wiskur and Greenwood-Van Meerveld, 2010).

Peristalsis is also affected by the age-related atrophy of the mucosa and muscle layers of the colon. The walls of the colon sag, prompting the formation of pouches (diverticuli). Straining to eliminate faeces may put additional pressure on weakened blood vessel walls, giving rise to haemorrhoids.

The rate of cell division declines in the digestive epithelium, which cannot repair and replace itself as well as it needs to. There is also a drastic age-associated rise in the incidence of several gut pathologies including cancer of the colon in fact, age is the key risk factor for colorectal cancer. Recent studies indicate that ageing induces changes in the DNA of epithelial intestinal cells, particularly in the colon; this process known as DNA methylation is believed to play a significant part in the development of colorectal cancers (Masoro and Austad, 2010).

Changes in the populations of gut microbes lead to an increase in facultative anaerobes including streptococcus, staphylococcus, enterococcus and enterobacteriaceae which are able to thrive in inflamed conditions (Pdron and Sansonetti, 2008). The ageing process mimics the intestinal microbe profile that accompanies inflammatory bowel diseases and obesity (Neish, 2009).

The commensal microorganisms inhabiting the lumen of the colon are prevented from entering surrounding tissues by a single layer of epithelial cells that form an impermeable mucosal barrier. This barrier becomes leaky with age (Mabbott, 2015). As the barrier function of the mucosal immune system is impaired, the incidence of GI pathogen infections is higher and is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in older people (Mabbott et al, 2015). This group is also at increased risk of infection with Clostridium difficile, which causes a potentially fatal dehydrating diarrhoea for which the two major risk factors are age of 65years and exposure to antimicrobials (Jump, 2013).

With age, the pancreas, which generates four major digestive enzymes, decreases in weight and some of its tissue undergoes fibrosis. Its exocrine function is impaired and the secretion of chymotrypsin and pancreatic lipase reduced (Laugier et al, 1991), adversely affecting the ability of the small intestine to digest food.

The liver undertakes more than 114 functions for the body; as it shrinks with age and blood flow to it decreases, its functional capacity also decreases (Drozdowski and Thomson, 2006). There is a decrease in the rate of protein synthesis and of metabolism, the livers ability to detoxify many substances, as well as the production and flow of bile (involved in fat emulsification). In addition, bile becomes thicker and its salt content diminishes, resulting in higher plasma concentrations of cholesterol, particularly in women (Frommherz et al, 2016). Drugs are no longer inactivated quickly by the liver and are therefore more likely to cause dose-related side-effects: dosages therefore need to be carefully checked when prescribing for older people.

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Anatomy and physiology of ageing 3: the digestive system - Nursing Times

Anatomy of a Victory – SAMAA TV

By: Omair Alavi

Pakistan may have won the first T20 against World Champions West Indies in Barbados but the victory was far from a convincing one; the team went out with a mixture of old and new players and sadly, it was the new ones who made the difference. Lets take a look at The Good, The Bad and The Ugly performers of the match and hope that either the bad ones get dropped or improve in the next outing.

The Good

Shadab Khan came, he bowled and conquered. The leg spinner made his T20 debut memorable by taking as many as 3 wickets for just 7 runs which is the most economical figures, ever for a newbie. He was rightly used as an attacking bowler by Sarfraz Ahmed who won his 5th consecutive match in charge. Due to Shadabs brilliant spell combined with excellent captaincy, Pakistan managed to restrict the hosts for just 111. It took a gutsy innings from Babar Azam to rescue Pakistan from a familiar collapse and his 29 off 30 proved to be one of the reasons the greenshirts came out victorious.

The Bad

Kamran Akmal once again proved that he is one of the worst fielders in the world with or without gloves. Yes, he did provide the explosive start but that doesnt mean that one can forget the blunder in the field. His opening partner Ahmed Shehzad also told the selectors that their confidence in his abilities was short-lived as he did what he always does nothing exceptional with the bat. He may be a wonderful fielder and for that, he might play as a 12th man, one who doesnt burden the team with his irresponsible batting at the top!

The Ugly

Once upon a time there was a fast bowler named Wahab Riaz who bowled a wonderful spell against Australia in the last World Cup, 2 years back. He has been playing in the side for that one performance and its about time that he should make way for young guns that actually fire and take wickets, not just donate runs. His 4 overs went for 35 runs and helped the West Indians more than the Pakistan side. Another player who proved to be useless in the final XI was former captain Mohammad Hafeez who bowled one over and scored 5 runs off 12 deliveries which is criminal if you do that in a T20. If he cant bowl, cant bat and cant field, then why is he in the team beats me. It is time that non-utility players like him are shown the door and young ones are included, because the young are the way forward for Pakistan, not the old ones!

Story first published: 27th March 2017

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Anatomy of a Victory - SAMAA TV